Moscow State Academy of Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology. K.I. Scriabin

CHAIRZOOLOGY, ECOLOGY AND NATURE CONSERVATION

Essay on zoology on the topic:

Origin, description and phylogenetic relationships of the genusEquus

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Head: T.A. Evstigneeva

Family HORSE (Equidae)

Equidae are the most progressive and highly specialized in adaptability to fast and long running equids. They have only one (III) finger on their front and hind limbs; only rudiments (II and IV) in the form of so-called slate bones hidden under the skin have been preserved from the lateral fingers. Teeth - 40-44. The hair is close to the body. On the neck there is a mane, a tail with long hair, forming a brush along the entire tip or at the end. The natural range of modern horses is limited to the Old World and covers South Africa, South and Central Asia; even in historical times, horses lived in the steppes and forest-steppes of Europe. Horses appeared in North America, where a significant part of their evolution took place, and only in the Tertiary period did they penetrate the Old World. The ancient ancestor of the horse, Eohippus, found in the Lower Eocene of North America, was the size of a small dog, had four-fingered forelimbs and three-fingered hind limbs. The molars of Eohippus were low with tubercles on the chewing surface. He lived in subtropical forests and fed on lush vegetation. The larger, the size of a greyhound dog, Mesohippus, found in the Oligocene deposits, already had only three fingers on both limbs, but its lateral fingers still reached the ground, and the crowns of the molars were low, although they had a flat, folded chewing surface. Apparently, he lived in the forest and in his way of life resembled tapirs. The same structure of the hind limbs, but with shorter lateral fingers, no longer reaching the ground, and a significantly larger body size, were distinguished by Protohippus from the Miocene of North Africa and Hipporion, widespread in the Miocene of Eurasia (lateral branch of horses). Subsequent Pliocene and Quaternary horses are already characterized by one-toed limbs and long crowns of molars, the chewing surface of which was flat and covered with complex folds. In addition to the Tertiary horses mentioned, a great many other fossil species are known from both the western and eastern hemispheres. However, by the end of the Pleistocene in America, horses died out completely and did not live to see a person. Only after the discovery of America by Europeans, the domestic horse was brought to the continent. Runaway and feral horses quickly multiplied into huge herds of mustangs that roamed the steppes of America for several hundred years until they were destroyed. Modern representatives of the horse family are considered as belonging to the same genus, or genera (or breeds) of horses, donkeys are distinguished

Origin of the horse

HORSE (Equus caballus) its origin remains unclear. The first evidence of domestic horses was found in Mesopotamia and Asia Minor at the end III-beginning II millennium BC. e. But domestication happened earlier (5000-6000 years ago), probably among nomads somewhere in Southern Siberia, Mongolia or Kazakhstan. The further spread of the domestic horse across Eurasia was accompanied by the breeding of different types and breeds. At the same time, several species (or subspecies) of wild horses, including the Przewalski's horse, took part in their formation. It is possible that horse breeding in North Asia and Europe arose independently, through the self-taming of local wild horses. The origin of domestic horses and various breeds, of which more than a hundred are known, is devoted to a huge number of special studies. Tamed horses were first used as slaughter animals. Later they began to be used in hunting and war, and even later - as a labor force. On the monuments of the Ancient East, about 2000 years BC. e., horses were already depicted in chariots. In the middle of the first millennium BC. e. The best horse breeding in Asia is known in Iran and adjacent countries, where the horses were tall, dry, slender build. At the same time, India was famous for its horses, Turkmen and Arab horse breeding was known. In Europe, breeds of strong horses were bred, which became especially widespread in the Middle Ages for riding knights clad in heavy armor. Later in Europe, breeds of heavy trucks were bred for transport and agriculture. There are many classifications of horse breeds. Usually, breeds of southern horses are distinguished - mostly fast-gaited, riding, such as Arabian, Don, English blood, Akhal-Teke. Northern horses come in two groups: smaller eastern ones, like Siberian, Mongolian, Yakut, and larger and heavier, like Ardennes, Brabancons, Vladimir. There are many breeds of mixed origin, including the famous Oryol trotters, Kyrgyz, Terek horses and many others. The horse is still an important domestic animal for many countries and regions. Equestrian sport is developing successfully.

Description

Horses (Equidae), a family of equids, represented by a single genus Equus. In addition to domestic horses and donkeys, it includes the Przhevalsky horse, zebras, wild donkeys and half-donkeys. All of them are distinguished by long thin limbs with one third finger protected by a hoof. Their ability to run fast is provided by well-developed organs of blood circulation, respiration and thermoregulation. Powerful jaws with large teeth, strong chewing muscles and developed salivary glands allow horses to chew plant food well. The stomach is relatively small, single-chamber, the ability to regurgitate food is absent. The intestine is relatively short with a particularly developed thick section. Females give birth to one, rarely 2 cubs, carrying them for 11-12 months.

The color of a horse in horse breeding is usually called a suit. There are several of them: black (all black), red and bay (all red, but the tail and mane are black), playful (dark red or chocolate, the tail and mane are white or smoky), buckskin (brown-yellow, the mane and tail are black). , often there is a dark belt along the ridge), gray (a mixture of white hair with black), savrasaya (brown-dark yellow, the lower part and legs are light) and others ..

The movements of the horse are called gaits. This is a step, trot, gallop, amble (the horse throws forward first the legs of the right side, then the left).

Odd-toed ungulates (Perissodactyla)

Horse family (Equidae)

To the detachment of equids ( Perissodactyla) we include horses, tapirs and rhinos. Of the 159 clans that lived mainly in the Tertiary period, only 6 clans have survived to this day. The current equine family ( Equidae), characterized by the presence of one hoof on each leg, evolved in an evolutionary way from small five-toed forest animals that lived more than 50 million years ago.

Hartmann's zebra (Equus zebra hartmannae) is a rare race mountain zebra. This zebra, according to scientists, is threatened with extinction. This race is easily recognizable by the prominent dewlap on the neck and by a special pattern - a "ladder" at the base of the tail. The growth of this zebra at the withers is about 130 cm, she lives in a mountainous area in southwestern Africa, in the edge of Damara. It feeds exclusively on plant foods.

The largest zebra is desert Zebra, or Zebra Gravy (Equus grevyi). The height at the withers does not reach 156 cm. It is characterized by a dense striping of the pattern and protruding "donkey" ears. Of all the zebras, she is the most easily domesticated and is trained to walk in a team or carry heavy loads. Distributed in Ethiopia (Abyssinia), South Sudan, Northern Kenya and Somalia. It lives in small herds in mountainous areas.

Above - a representative of the most numerous species of zebras - the steppe zebra - subspecies Grant's zebra (Equus quagga granti). Its coloration consists of relatively rare black and white stripes, without brown margins. A brownish-black spot stands out on the muzzle above the nose. Keeps in common herds with antelopes and other ungulates. Distributed in East Africa, mainly in Kenya.

Kulan (Equus hemionus) - an endangered species of wild horse - somewhat similar to a donkey, but growing from a medium-sized horse. In the picture below - a subspecies of the kulan jigetai (Equus hemionus hemionus), grows in length up to 2.5 m, height at the withers 115 cm. The color is yellowish-brown, the bottom of the body is whitish. The mane, tail and "donkey" dorsal strap are dark brown. Kulan lives in small herds in the endless steppes and mountains from Iran and Turkmenistan to Mongolia. Comes to a height of up to 5000 m (below).

The Eurasian wild horse was once found in several races in the territory from East Asia before Western Europe. Recently, only three subspecies have remained - one of them has already been completely exterminated, and the other two are artificially supported in a number of reserves and zoos. Above - tabunchik Przewalski's horses (Equus przewalskii). Przewalski's horse is 220-280 cm long, 120-146 cm high at the withers. The summer color of the skin is reddish-brown, the winter grayish-brown; winter hair is longer and thicker than summer hair. A dark "donkey" stripe ("belt") runs down the middle of the back; stripes are sometimes faintly outlined on the legs. There is a bulge on the muzzle between the nose and forehead. According to the latest information, the Przhevalsky horse (about 40 heads) is still found in the steppes of Dzungaria at an altitude of 1000 to 1400 m above sea level. y. m., on the border between Mongolia and China. As of January 1, 1964, there were 110 Przewalski's horses in zoos around the world. However, most of them are mixed with domestic horses, and purebred representatives of the species can be counted on the fingers.

On p. 534 below, a school of unpurebred descendants of an exterminated tarpan is photographed.

Tarpan (Equus gmelini) - a European wild horse - had a mouse color, dark legs with vicious stripes, a dark "donkey" belt along the ridge and a standing mane. He lasted longest in the Dnieper steppes and in Poland. He often mixed with domestic horses and left many of his marks in them. The last tarpan mare was killed by peasants in 1876. Currently, attempts are being made to "restore" this form, genetically more or less complete.

Around 5,000 years ago, wild horses were domesticated in Europe and Asia. Over time, they were brought to America and Australia, where until then there were no horses. Over the course of millennia, many different breeds have been bred in different countries, sometimes significantly different from each other. By crossing riding and draft horses, the Lipizzan horse breed was bred (top right).

There are a number of races of domestic donkeys. They are distributed almost throughout the warm zone of the Earth. Their progenitor was most likely wild nubian donkey (Equus asinus africanus). According to the latest data, they were domesticated even earlier than horses. In the East, domestic donkeys are widely used as riding and draft animals. Donkeys stubbornly maintain an inner independence, which often manifests itself in an unwillingness to obey orders. This is usually followed by a brutal suppression of the donkey's individuality in the form of beatings, which the drovers do not skimp on.

A mixture of a stallion and a donkey is called a hinny. A hinny is an animal the size of a donkey and looks more like a donkey than a horse. Only the ears of the hinny are shorter. If you cross a donkey with a mare, you get a mule. The mule is much larger than the donkey, it has long ears, slender legs and a color inherited from its mother. In the picture you see a couple of bay mules.

Tapir family (Tapiridae)

The second family of equids are tapirs ( Tapiridae). Outwardly, tapirs somewhat resemble pigs, but apart from this external resemblance, there is nothing in common between them. Their nose is extended into a short movable proboscis. In the Tertiary period, many types of tapirs lived, and where they no longer exist today: in North America, in Europe and in Asia. Nowadays, one species is found in the Indian region and three species in Central and South America.

plains tapir (Tapirus terrestris) is a nocturnal animal, about 1 m high at the withers and 2 m long, with short sparse brownish-gray hair. The tapir inhabits the dense, moist forests of northern South America. It feeds on fruits and branches of plants. Tapir often becomes the prey of jaguars, cougars and humans. Caught in youth, the tapir is easily tamed and gets used to the person like a horse.

Rhinoceros family (Rhinocerotidae)

Rhino family ( Rhinocerotidae), formerly rich and diverse, is now dying out. More than 20 extinct species have been described, and the days of the five remaining species are also numbered. Only consistent and rigorous defense can save them. Of the remaining five species, the most numerous black african rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis). It is found only in some areas of Central and East Africa. The length of its body is 3.4 m, the tail is about 70 cm, the height at the shoulders is about 160 cm. Its hairless skin has a brownish-gray color, but the specific color of the body depends on the dirt or dust in which this specimen fell out. Two horns are planted on the nose at a small distance from each other, the first horn in some cases is up to 1 m long. The rhinoceros is found in open steppes and in areas covered with bushes. It feeds on branches and foliage, cutting them off with a movable proboscis-beak on the upper lip. Sometimes it twists roots and eats plant tubers. Rhino's eyesight is poor, but its sense of smell is flawless. Throws itself at a person only in stalemate or if injured.

All members of the family , donkeys and zebras - live in the wild. The exception is the Przewalski's horse, which is now found only in zoos.

All horses are kept in packs, many of them are diurnal, devoting most of their time to foraging. Herd size different types horses are different. During the search for food, an old mare leads the herd, and the stallion protects the herd from the rear. Each male of the mountain and Burchell zebras gathers his own harem, consisting of females with foals.

Some male Grevy's zebra, Nubian and Somali wild donkeys live alone and guard their territory.

What do horses eat

All horses are herbivores.

They feed mainly on grass, sometimes leaves of trees or leaves of shrubs. Some species feed on perennial plant species, buds, fruits and root crops. The main food of these animals is grass. Some types of horses live in semi-deserts, being content with local sparse vegetation and visiting a watering hole every 3-4 days. Horse species inhabiting forage-rich areas visit the watering hole at least every 36 hours. Donkeys and zebras, unlike other species, graze at dusk. They pluck grass stalks with their soft moving lips. The digestive system of horses consists of a single-chamber stomach and a developed intestine with numerous sections that work on the example of individual stomachs. The large intestine is especially developed, where the fermentation of plant fiber occurs.

horse breeding

All species of the family presented here can interbreed, but their offspring, with rare exceptions, are sterile. The mating period of animals living in climatic zones with a change of four seasons usually falls in the spring. Monthly estrus in mares continues until the egg is fertilized.

Mating of most ungulates takes place without stormy scenes; males of females do not arrange fights. During a simple courtship ritual, the stallion chases the horse and gently nibbles on its back. During the mating period, some donkeys, kulans and zebras behave aggressively, biting and kicking their chosen ones. Pregnancy lasts 11-13 months. Zebra cubs stand on their feet a quarter of an hour after birth. According to observations, horses find their foals by smell. In the first week of life, the foal suckles the mother very often. After a few weeks, he already nibbles grass, but continues to feed on mother's milk until the age of eight months.

Young horses leave their native herd when they reach puberty, that is, at the age of just over a year. They are usually nailed to another herd and live in it for a whole year without taking part in reproduction. Young stallions aged 1-3 years gather in separate "bachelor" herds and stick together until they are strong enough to win the right to establish their own harem.

Video about horses

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types of horses

mountain zebra

Zebra Grevy

Wild relatives of horses. In addition to our domesticated one-hoofed animals - horses, donkeys and their wild ancestral forms still preserved in nature - their close relatives were more than two dozen species similar to them both in general body structure, and in the structure of the dental apparatus, and, most importantly, in structure their one-toed limbs. The species of this group live in the deserts and semi-deserts of Asia and in the African savannahs and feed there, depending on the season, and fresh
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and dried up grassy vegetation.
One of these wild species is also part of the fauna of the USSR. This is a kulan, currently preserved only in the very south of Turkmenistan, in the adjacent regions of Iran, in Afghanistan and China. In former times * - in the XVIII century - kulans were widespread in the lowlands Central Asia and Kazakhstan, but in the last century they were exterminated here. The same fate threatens the Turkmen kulans, but now hunting for them is prohibited in our country.
The kulan is a slender and swift-footed animal. It is distinguished from the wild horse by its longer, mule-like ears (hence its scientific name, Hemionus, which in Greek means half donkey); the color of the coat, like that of so many other desert animals, is yellowish, gray, undoubtedly having a protective value.
A special group, distinguished by zoologists as a subgenus, consists of more than a dozen species of tiger horses, of which the South African zebra can be most often found in zoos (Fig. 459). At a close distance, the striped coloring of tiger horses is striking, but at a distance (as these sensitive and cautious animals usually keep), it hides the bulk of their bodies, making them blend with the general background of the savanna landscape. Apparently, this type of coloration is of ancient origin,

traces of it (in the form of dark stripes on the legs) are found in some forms of other species of the horse family.
Brindle horses easily interbreed with other species of the same family, which indicates a close relationship of all these forms.
The origin of the one-toed limb of the horse. Single-toed limbs sharply distinguish modern horses from all other living ungulates, and zoologists of the first half of the last century opposed the group of “one-hoofed” not only to “two-hoofed” (i.e., ruminant), in which the reduction in the number of fingers took place in a different way, but also to everything else ungulates - that combined group of "multi-hoofed", which included elephants, and pigs, and hippos, and rhinoceroses. However, a careful examination of the skeleton of a single-toed limb of a horse, and its comparison with the structure of the corresponding parts in a number of fossil ungulates of the Tertiary period, allows not only to establish a close relationship between horses and other equids, but also to trace their genealogical history step by step.
The skeletal structure of the horse's leg. Features in the structure of the skeleton of the limbs of the horse are clearly visible when considering their extreme (distal) sections - the metacarpus and foot. On the skeleton of the limb, we see that, although the horse has only one finger fully developed, which in its position corresponds to our middle one and which takes on the support of the entire limb, on the sides of each metacarpal and each tarsal bone there are also so-called slate bones in the form of thin pointed sticks, which no longer have any significance for the functioning of the limbs. These useless rudiments indicate that the one-toed limbs of the horse occurred by changing the former three-toed limbs, similar to those of other equids (Fig. 460).
Phenacod. In early Tertiary times, both Europe and North America were inhabited by animals that, in their structure, were undoubtedly close to the common ancestors of all equids, but, unlike all later species of this group, still had a full number of fingers on their limbs. These were phenakod (Fig. 461) - tetrapods of medium size (body length up to 1.5 le), with a long tail, a flexible body, a small head with a small and flat cranium and with jaws armed with a full set of teeth (44), suitable for processing both plant and animal food and ancient carnivores (creodonts) that differed little from the dental apparatus. Their body was supported by low five-fingered limbs,
leaning only on three middle fingers, and the middle one (III) was longer than the others and, judging by its shape, was dressed with a hoof.
Using the example of the phenacode, we see that with the transfer of body support to more developed middle fingers, the extreme lateral tales (I and V) lose their functional significance and therefore can be completely lost in the future without harm to the animal.
Schematically, we can reproduce this process if we first lean on the table with our entire five-fingered palm, and then we begin to transfer support first only to the lower surface of the fingers and finally we will rely only on the very ends of the fingers (Fig. 462). We will see how, in this case, the extreme lateral fingers I and V, and then II and IV, will remain without dividing, and all support will fall, like in a single-hoofed horse, on the share of only the middle finger.
Successive stages of development of the horse series. Phenacodus gives us a clear idea of ​​the oldest type of structure of odd-toed hoofed tetrapods, but he himself is not among the direct ancestors of the equine series, since at the same time forms with lost lateral toes already existed on Earth - the direct predecessors of the later one-hoofed animals.

The most ancient member of this series can be considered the early Tretian Eohippus. It was a small animal the size of a fox, having 4 fingers on the front legs and 3 on the hind legs; when walking, his side fingers had to touch the ground. After eogiiius there are several forms with three-fingered limbs (the fourth finger has already been lost). Then a larger three-toed form appears - monohippus, in which the middle finger is much more developed, and the lateral ones no longer come into contact with the smooth surface of the earth. The next members of the series are even larger animals, in which the lateral fingers become clearly useless rudiments, although they remain visible from the outside. Finally, the Upper Tertiary Pliohyppus turns out to be already a one-hoofed animal, relatively close to modern species of the horse family - the largest representatives of this series.
In parallel with the underdevelopment of the lateral fingers and the increase in body size in members of the equine series, a change in the dental apparatus also took place. In the most ancient forms, the molars were tuberculate, in modern horses they have a flat chewing surface and a folded structure, and the intermediate members of the series give different lines between these two extreme types. /> What was the reason for the direction of the process, which with such a steady sequence was expressed in the gradual transitions from small polydactyl eogippus to modern long-legged one-hoofed horses, from multi-tubercular molars to cylindrical teeth capable of grinding dry hay and hard grain fodder?

This question was brilliantly resolved back in the 70s of the last century in the works of the brilliant Russian paleontologist Vladimir Onufrievich Kovalevsky.
More ancient animals in the series of ancestors of the horse series were not steppe. Both by their structure and by the nature of the deposits in which their remains were found, it is clear that they lived in a warm and humid climate and ate juicy plant food (recall the similar tuberculate teeth of our pigs and their food). With their small size among dense vegetation, these animals did not need the speed and tirelessness of running, which are necessary for the inhabitants of open spaces - modern wild one-hoofed animals, deprived of the opportunity to hide in a hole and in dense thickets. Under these conditions, relatively short three-toed or four-toed legs fully satisfied the needs of the animal, especially since, if necessary, it could speed up its run, moving in jumps with the help of flexion and extension of its body (recall the movements of a cat).
Geological changes that occurred in the middle of the Tertiary period and were accompanied by the rise of high mountain ranges, caused a change in climatic conditions over large expanses of land, and at the same time a change in vegetation cover. In countries that were separated from the seas by high mountain ranges, the climate became more continental and the forest vegetation was replaced by grassy steppes.
Under these conditions, for large ungulates, the path to developing the ability to dig holes and hide in them from danger, as rodents and small predators do, was already cut off, and a quick run remained for them the only means of salvation. But with large body sizes, the flexibility of the spine is already lost, which allows small quadrupeds to move in jumps, and the speed of movement begins to depend only on the legs. Under these new conditions, animals with longer legs and with the shortest possible support surface, that is, a reduced number of fingers, gained a vital advantage (after all, it is not for nothing that the snail gastropod mollusk serves as the personification of slowness for us, and it is not for nothing that we ourselves, leaning on the entire foot when walking, when running, be sure to rise on your fingertips).
With the transition to life in the steppes, the nature of the nutrition of ungulates also changed: herbivorous animals with tuberculate teeth, under the inexorable action of natural selection, gradually degenerated into herbivorous animals with folded teeth and capable of eating vegetation even after it was scorched by the sun and dried up on the vine.
Thus, on the basis of authentic paleontological documents, it was possible not only to establish the phylogenetic series of the horse family, but also to find out the reasons why the development of this group went in that particular direction.
The classical works of V. O. Kovalevsky on the study of extinct ungulates laid the foundation for the ecological direction in paleontology, which sees in fossil remains not only dead bones, but also parts of living organisms that acted at one time, the structure of which corresponded to the conditions of their existence and their way of life.


Rice. 463. Arrangement of links * nev front konechioster. horses, giving them sufficient stability and at the same time limiting their mobility by pendulum-like movements in the same plane when walking and running (front view; diagram).

If you happen to see the complete skeleton of a horse, you may notice that the adaptation of the limbs to long and fast running SH9 is limited to the loss of the lateral vals*, * it is also expressed in the simplification of the structure of the forearm (Fig. 4G3) and lower leg: the lotus bone has grown together with
radial, and the fibula turned into a small appendage of the tibia. As a result of all these changes, and in the absence of clavicles, rotational movements in the shoulder joint and turns of its one-toed hand are inaccessible for the horse (note that trained circus horses, having risen on their front legs and bowing to the applause of the audience, cannot make greeting movements with their forelimbs and only sort through them in a vertical plane). But it is precisely this stiffness of movements that gives the high legs of the horse the stability and strength necessary for fast running on the hard ground of open steppes; in the domesticated state, it secured their paramount importance as riding and draft animals for horses.
ungulate mammals in wild nature
The impoverishment of the fauna of ungulates. Of the diversity of the vast group of ungulates in our modern conditions we can directly see and study only our large and small cattle, pigs and horses; in the north and south, reindeer, camel, buffalo and donkey are added to them. As for other artiodactyls and equids, we can only get acquainted with them in zoos or menageries, and only expedition members can be lucky enough to see steppe antelopes or mountain goats and rams in their natural setting.
Things were different in the past*, although still comparatively recent times. Ancient literary monuments testify that the territory of our country abounded with various animals. In its forest zone, in addition to fur-bearing animals, there were a large number of elk, roe deer (wild goats),
deer and two species of wild bulls lived - tour and bison. And in the south, in the steppes of the black earth belt, herds of saiga goats and wild tarpan horses grazed.
With the growth of the population and especially with firearms in his hands, the number of wild animals quickly declined. More than others from the merciless destruction suffered different kinds from the detachment of artiodactyls: from them the hunter received both a large meat carcass and good-quality skin. Back in the 16th century, the European bull tour, the ancestor of our livestock, was exterminated. His cousin the bison was ousted from the life arena already before the eyes of the living generation: by the end of the 19th century, the range of the European bison was already limited to the territory of Belovezhskaya Pushcha - a protected forest area at the junction of the borders of present-day Lithuania, Belarus and Poland, where this rare vver was protected as an object for the front door. royal hunt. However, despite the protection, the number of bison in this narrowly limited area was catastrophically reduced, and in 1914 there were only 738 of them. Later, the territory of Belovezhskaya Pushcha was subjected to enemy occupation both during the first imperialist war and during the Second World War, as a result of which the Bialowieza bison were mostly killed, partly

were taken away by the Germans to German zoos. Now purebred descendants of the Bialowieza bison have been preserved and breed annually in the Munich Zoo (Germany), from where part of the offspring was sent to some other zoos in Western Europe. Now we breed bison in Belovezhskaya Pushcha, in the Caucasian and Prioksko-Terrasny reserves.
An even sadder fate befell the Caucasian subspecies of bison, which first became known to science only in 1836, and already in the early 20s of our century - in the period civil war- was completely destroyed by poachers.
Conservation of nature and the revival of endangered species. It seemed that the same sad fate was prepared in the near future for other ungulates, whose numbers were steadily decreasing every year. However, as can be seen from the examples of elk and saiga, timely government measures to protect animals help to restore their numbers and keep them in the future as part of our commercial fauna.
Elk, or (in Siberia) elk (Fig. 464), was subjected to especially intense persecution at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries, since the best suede was made from its skin, for which there was a great demand in those days (white suede leggings were part of the uniform military uniforms). In the Moscow province, the elk was then completely exterminated; it became rare even in distant Transbaikalia. However, after the October Revolution, when elk hunting was banned in the European part of the USSR, their population gradually recovered, and now they sometimes wander even to the outskirts of the capital (for example, to Sokolniki). Now the number of moose is tens of thousands of heads, so they are hunted. In the North, attempts are being made to domesticate the elk, turning it into a draft, pack and riding animal; it is also possible to use the elk as a valuable meat and dairy animal in conditions of its semi-free keeping in the taiga zone.

Rice. 465. Saiga.

Saiga, or saiga (fig. 465), in ancient times was found in huge numbers in the steppe, semi-desert and desert strip from Ukraine to Central Asia. Unlike its relatives - real antelopes - the saiga does not give the impression of a beautiful and graceful animal, and its large hook-nosed head even seems ugly (due to its good instinct, it has a highly developed nasal cavity and movable nostrils protrude forward above the lower jaw).
As a result of merciless extermination at the beginning of our century, the saiga was considered an animal doomed to complete extinction, and the total number of its livestock still preserved at that time, according to zoologists, did not exceed one thousand. In 1919, the saigas were taken under protection, and in the 1950s they had already multiplied so much that it was possible to allow them to be hunted with special permits, and now their meat, like the meat of elk, sometimes appears on store shelves. Thus, thanks to the timely measures taken, it was possible to preserve the saiga in our fauna, and, moreover, not as a “monument of nature”, but as a valuable game animal.
Antler reindeer breeding. On the way to domestication are three Asian deer - maral (Fig. 466) and red deer - the closest relatives of the European noble

Rice. 466. Maral pantach.

reindeer (its geographical species) and the Far Eastern sika deer. Unlike the reindeer, these forms have antlers only on the male. Every year, at the end of winter, the horns are shed, and then new horns begin to grow on their base (rosette), initially dressed in soft velvety skin and richly supplied with blood.
For the sake of such horns, called antlers at this age, industrialists pursued male deer, red deer and spotted deer at the end of spring. The fact is that antlers taken from dead animals, brewed in a salt solution and then dried, found good sales in China, where they were used to make medicines.
Even in the last century, some enterprising Siberians began to tame the captured deer calves and grow them in fenced forest areas in order to get precious antlers from them. When, in connection with the development of the doctrine of hormons, our scientific medicine also assessed the pharmaceutical value of velvet antlers (the medicinal preparation pantokrin is made from them), in Siberia and on Far East Special state farms began to appear for breeding marals and sika deer and collective-farm maral nurseries. At these enterprises, in the corresponding season (in June), antlers are sawn off from living males, without resorting to slaughtering these animals.

The domestic horse is an artiodactyl animal domesticated by man. Horses are not just used for economic purposes. Today, odd-toed ungulates are raised to participate in horse races, serve in the police, and entertain children. In areas with difficult terrain, where no car can pass, the horse is indispensable. A novice in the content of mammals should know that the diet, exercise, cleaning depends on how many years the animal will live.

What are the types of horses?

Types of horses are divided depending on the degree of hairline, color, the presence of "chestnuts" on the legs.

Allocate subgenera:

• Horse. Domestic horse, Przewalski's horse, tarpan.

• A donkey. The African has a light muzzle and a mane without bangs. Ears, like other representatives, are long. There is a pronounced brush at the tip of the tail. The limbs are striped below. The height of an adult individual is not more than 4 m. Currently, there are no more than 490 free-living representatives of the species. The domestic donkey was domesticated a little earlier than horses. For the first time it was tamed in Egypt. Animals are able to eat absolutely any plant food. Sometimes they use ropes and paper. They especially love thistles. Animals do not need additional feeding, they can get everything they need on the pasture. Donkeys are unpretentious animals that tolerate heat well. They do not need a specific shelter, a canopy is enough. Donkeys are able to work 9 hours a day. If necessary, they can carry a weight exceeding their own. Other representatives of the species are kiang, kulan, onager.

• Tiger horse. Quagga is an extinct species of zebra and the first animal tamed by man. Used to protect livestock. The man was appreciated by her ability to instantly determine the proximity of an enemy and sound an alarm. The head and neck of the odd-toed ungulate were painted in a brown stripe, and the rump had a solid color. Zebra Grevy is able to make sounds similar to a donkey. You can meet an animal only in small areas in Africa. Champan and mountain horses are also representatives of tiger horses.

People often use the unique ability of two representatives of different contracts to produce viable offspring.

Mating a donkey with a horse produces a mule, a hardy but incapable animal. It is used in rural areas when performing heavy work and for the transport of goods. Males of this species are always sterile. Females, in some cases, are able to cover themselves.
Horse - description and external characteristics
The animal is strong, graceful, slender. It has a well-developed muscle mass. The body is rounded, the legs are slender and long. On the wrists are located "chestnuts" - keratinized calloused bumps. The head is elongated, large. The brain is small, however, this does not affect the mental abilities of the animal. On the head is a pair of movable pointed ears. On the muzzle are large nostrils and eyes.

The body is covered with hairs, the length of which varies depending on the location: on the body they are stiff and short, they serve for protection, on the tail and mane they are silky and long. The color of the animal determines the suit. As the equine grows older, it can change significantly.

Weight categories of horses

• The largest is the lungs. Weight of animals up to 400 kg. The lightest breeds are ponies.
• Medium-heavy - 410-610 kg. These include light-duty horses.
• Heavy - weight exceeds 600 kg. Representatives of the Shire breed reach a mass of 1390 kg.

Fatness levels:

• exhibition ones have a shiny coat and attractive rounded shapes;
• factory well-fed, which gives them the opportunity to bear offspring;
• workers do not have a large amount of body fat;
• ill-fed animals are the result of poor-quality maintenance and exhausting work. Also, low weight indicates the presence of diseases.

How long does a horse live?

The average life expectancy of equids is 39 years. However, not all horses reach this age. The number of years lived is influenced by the way of life of animals. Breeding individuals are able to live up to 26 years, horses participating in sports competitions, about 19, ponies 37.

In nature, odd-toed ungulates rarely reach the peak of their maturity. This is due to the lack of necessary forage base, care, treatment. On average, animals live up to 16 years.

Horse breeds

Odd-toed ungulates have served man since ancient times. Today there are many types of animals that are characterized by features of character, health, physical strength.

The main breeds of horses:

• Factory. It is subdivided into trotting, heavy, riding species.

The Trakehner horse was created for use in the army. But attractive appearance allowed her to take her rightful place among the traveling horses. The Trakehner horse is a hardy strong animal. These qualities made it possible to use it in agriculture. Today the animal participates in competitions. Experts believe that the Trakehner horse is ideal for carriage racing, riding, and sledding. The animal has a good disposition and courage. The Trakehner horse is good in any field.

The Arabian horse stands out outwardly among its relatives. Living in the desert greatly affected her appearance. The body of the equid is dry, small in size, light. The eyes are large and expressive. The head is small. The Arabian horse raises its tail high while running. Features are present not only in the appearance of the animal, but also in its structure. The horse has not 18, but 17 ribs, the tail and lumbar vertebrae are also smaller. The Arabian horse is distinguished by high fertility and good health. The most common in a mammal is the gray color of the body. After some time, mottling is clearly manifested on it. The Arabian horse of roan color is much less common. Sometimes animals have red, bay and White color corps. Arabian horse of silver-bay and black color is a rarity. Specialists distinguish the following types of animals: habdan, siglavi, coheilan. Today, the Arabian horse is used in equestrian sports, like other riding breeds of horses.

Akhal-Teke is a breed of horses descended from the horses of the nomads of Central Asia. Animals are distinguished by a dry physique, high growth. Some experts argue that the Akhal-Teke horse is the ancestor of Arabian horses. The appearance of modern animals has remained the same as centuries ago. The Akhal-Teke horse has a lean body without fat deposits, a shiny coat. The animal has very sparse hairline.

Some foals are born hairless. From hypothermia, they die soon.

The Akhal-Teke horse, despite its graceful physique, is very hardy. It is able to do without water and food for a long period, endure heat and long hikes. The Akhal-Teke horse is sensitive to cold. Her gallop is high and smooth. Such movements helped the ancestors of the animal to move along quicksand. The Akhal-Teke horse is very attached to humans. Also, the animal is very independent. If the rider cannot establish contact with him, then the horse will only do what he wants to do. The Akhal-Teke horse used to be used during hunting or war. The animal was not harnessed to the harness.

Frieze is a heritage of the Netherlands. One of the most majestic breeds. The Friesian horse is known for its friendliness and intelligence. Black deep color, beautiful proportions, magnificent hairline won not a single heart. Today, the Friesian horse is used mainly in circus performances and sports competitions. More recently, the breed was threatened with complete extinction. In the 20th century, people valued practicality and strength in animals. Grace and royalty to become a frieze horse was not in demand. Thanks to the efforts of a small group of people and a properly designed livestock restoration program, it was possible to avoid the complete disappearance of these animals. Later, the royal family took control of this breed. Today, the Friesian horse is rightfully considered the pride of the country in which it was bred.

Animal heavy trucks were used by knights in the Middle Ages. Ordinary equids could not carry too much weight, so there was a need for a breed that could not only handle the weight of a rider in armor, but also gallop at the same time. Thanks to medieval heavy trucks, such modern breeds as Shires, Brabancons, Percherons appeared.

• transitional. This group includes the Kabardian, Budenov, Don horse. These animals are versatile. They are widely used both in the economy and in sports. The Don horse was bred by the Cossacks. Differs in beauty and high growth.

• Local. It is classified into mountain, steppe, northern forest.

Animals are distinguished by a variety of colors and small sizes. Odd-toed ungulates are able to endure heavy climatic conditions and poor nutrition. Their character is energetic and lively.

The Mongolian horse is a stocky, sturdy animal with a brownish body color. In winter, the density of wool increases significantly. This saves the animal from hypothermia. The Mongolian horse is a faithful assistant to nomads. The odd-toed ungulate gives milk and meat, helps to overcome considerable distances. Under the saddle, the Mongolian horse is able to walk about 79 km daily. Animals are bred in herds on pasture. In winter, the Mongolian horse eats snow to quench its thirst.

The Yakut horse can withstand low temperatures, down to -60⁰С. Thanks to the year-round keeping without a canopy and free mating, a squat, low animal with short legs was formed.

The Yakut horse, with good feeding, significantly exceeds the average for the breed.

The Yakut horse has a massive head, thick hair, strong hooves. The color of the body is mousey, savrasy or gray. It lives in an extremely difficult climate for other animals. Therefore, it is problematic to improve its pedigree qualities by crossing with other breeds. Mating takes place between individuals of the same species. The Yakut horse eats only pasture, is kept in a herd.

The Bashkir breed of horses was formed for a long period. Animals have features of both steppe and forest equids. The Bashkir horse has undergone a number of evolutionary changes during its existence. The habitat of mammals today is mountain-steppe. The Bashkir horse is bony, small in size. It is used in agriculture, under the saddle, to obtain meat and milk.

Through interbreeding and good nutrition managed to get an improved type of horses. The Bashkir horse is distinguished by great strength and endurance.

wild horses

The Przewalski's horse lives in semi-deserts and steppes. The diet is based on cereals: fescue, feather grass, wheatgrass. Odd-hoofed animals could find enough food only in oases. That is why the animals led a nomadic life, gathering in a herd. It included a stallion and several females with foals. The grown up young animals were separated from the group and gathered in bachelor herds.

Przewalski's horse has a reddish coat color. This coloration allows her to camouflage well on the ground. To enhance the effect of merging with the territory allows a narrow dark longitudinal strip along the back.

The height of the animal does not exceed 149 cm, and the length is 2.6 m. How much does a horse weigh? Weight reaches 290 kg. The head of an artiodactyl is large, lighter than the body. Sometimes its color is white, the same as that of the abdomen. The Przewalski's horse has a good sense of smell and fine hearing, allowing you to notice the enemy from a distance.

The life expectancy of an animal fluctuates around 24 years. Mares become sexually mature by 4 years, males by 5. The mating period takes place in the spring. Pregnancy lasts 11 months. The female feeds her foal with milk throughout the year.

At night or in case of danger, the young are collected inside the circle formed by the mares. Females become the back of the body to the enemy.

The Przewalski's horse is not a direct ancestor of the domestic horse. Przewalski's horse is extremely difficult to adapt to captivity. She is almost impossible to tame. When scientists faced the question of saving the species, it was decided to place the animals in zoos. Przewalski's horse was hard to catch. Caught animals died in large numbers, refusing food. Today, natural, carefully protected habitat conditions have been created for these equids.

The Przewalski's horse is protected by the Convention regulating the trade in rare species. It is also listed in the International Red Book.

Another representative of wild horses is the mustang. He lives in America. Researchers believe that the animal is a feral descendant of Spanish horses. The number of mustang horses is declining today. Life expectancy - 29 years.

Horse nutrition

The food base of animals depends on the living conditions.

In the wild, the basis of the diet is:

• herbs;
• other vegetation.

In warm weather, animals feed on fresh herbs, in cold weather - on plants hidden under the snow.

The variety of food eaten depends entirely on the conditions of existence. In a harsh climate, equids eat not only grasses, but also young branches, leaves, and bark. In the southern territories, rich in greenery, it is much easier for animals to find the necessary food.

The main food of horses is hay and pasture. They must be clean, without signs of damage.

Overfeeding alfalfa hay can cause diarrhea in animals. It contains more protein than other types of plant-based grass feeds.

The concentrate is an important product necessary for pregnant, young, and active equids. The best in this group of products are beets, barley and oats. In addition, good results are obtained by using a mixture of molasses with grain.

The horse should receive up to 49 liters of water daily. It must be available to the animal at any time. It should be kept clean.

Animals tend to overeat. You need to feed them often and in small portions.

Horse suits

As the animal matures, its coat color changes. There are several types of suit:

• The black horse is an animal painted completely black. His hooves may be with points of a paler shade, or charcoal. This color range is carried by the dominant gene. Therefore, in 69% of cases, it is transmitted to young animals. An exclusively black black horse is extremely rare. Akhal-Teke horses are characterized by the absence of wool burning under the rays of the sun. Foals of this breed are born with a bluish or smoky coat. During molting, the black horse loses its bright black hue, acquiring a brown color.
• The intensity of the shade of red horses varies. Most often, the color of the hair matches the shade of the coat. A red horse will never have black legs.
• Nightingale suit, what shade is this? The main features of animals: white shade of hair, brown or amber eyes. The nightingale is extremely rare and highly prized.
• The buckskin horse has a sandy body, black legs, mane and tail. In rare cases, the limbs are only half dark. The buckskin horse has beautiful brown eyes.
• What color is a bay horse? The gene that affects the appearance of brown in the exterior appears in a large number of horses. Therefore, this shade is considered to be the base for wild animals. The bay horse in its classic form has black limbs, hairline and the tip of the muzzle. The chestnut suit is dominated by walnut colors. The animal looks incredibly beautiful in the rays of the sun. A bay horse of a cherry color is a rare occurrence. These animals are of particular interest to breeders.
• Brown color is often found in wild and zonal equids. The brown horse arose due to the effect of the DUN gene on the pigment. It has a simultaneous effect on red and black, but not all of the coat is lightened. The tail, limbs and mane remain dark. The brown horse is able to disguise itself in almost any terrain.
• The unusual appearance of skewbald horses gave rise to many legends around them. Many people think that Blue eyes can only be worn by Overo horses. It's a delusion. Any piebald horse has this shade. The color of the iris does not affect the quality of vision in any way. However, many animals are particularly sensitive to sunlight. The piebald horse has shaded spots on its body. This is a visual deception. It occurs due to the translucence of the dark skin through the light hairline. A piebald horse can be of any color. There are apricot, silver, isabella, champagne individuals.

horse breeding process

It completely depends on the lifestyle of equids.

In the wild, mating begins in spring and ends in mid-summer. The herd consists of a stallion and a dozen mares, among which is the main female. It is she who leads the rest of the individuals. The main task of the stallion is to protect the herd and cover the females.

As soon as the mares are ready to mate, they signal to the stallion:

• squeal softly;
• place the hind limbs;
• lower the head to the bottom;
• lift the tail
• secrete an odorous liquid that attracts males.

On the farm

On farms, mating proceeds differently. For the farmer, the main task is to improve the breed. Therefore, a person carefully selects pairs, chooses a method of fertilization.

• Artificial insemination. The breeder collects his own semen. After quality analysis, it is frozen. With the help of tools, sperm is injected into the mare. The method is used when a thoroughbred stallion is far from females.
• Cooking. In the pen, several pre-selected mares and a stallion are isolated. After mating, they are released to the herd.
• Manual. The most common method. Conception occurs in 96% of cases. The offspring are distinguished by high characteristics in health and appearance. Horseshoes are removed from the mare, a harness is put on, and the tail is bandaged. They are brought into the room and introduced to the stallion. Mating occurs naturally.
• Kosyachny. Females are divided into shoals, consisting of 24 individuals. A male is launched to them for the period of estrus. The probability of fertilization is 100%.

The stallion is carefully chosen. They evaluate genetics, appearance, thoroughbred data, endurance, temperament.

For mating, mares are chosen that are slightly larger than stallions.

Pregnancy in mares lasts 11 months. During childbirth, the animal is laid on its side. Extraneous presence at this time is undesirable. However, if the animal is very attached to the owner, then he should be nearby. The duration of the process is about 30 minutes.

Basically, one foal is born. An hour later he is on his feet.

During the warm period, the horses are kept outside, in the cold - under the roof. The barn is designed for two individuals, the stables are necessary with a large livestock.

Caring for a horse is the key to its long and fulfilling life. Basic Rules:

• The hair is combed daily with a plastic comb. In the morning, wipe the nostrils and eyes with a moistened sponge. Wool brushed. In the warm season, daily bathing is required.
• Food is served 3 times a day. Various supplements are included in the main diet. Food never changes abruptly. Animals have very delicate digestive systems. Odd-toed ungulates should always have access to clean water room temperature.
• The stables are cleaned daily. In summer, it must be ventilated, and in the cold, heated.
• Constant stay in a cramped room negatively affects the musculoskeletal system. Animals need to be walked daily.

Hooves need careful care. The blacksmith is obliged to adjust the horseshoe before installation. It is absolutely impossible to apply it in a hot form. Shoe nails are selected individually. An incorrectly chosen size can lead to an inflammatory process or even death of the animal. Horseshoes are changed every six months.

Horses have many unusual features. Their nature and character, upon closer examination, surprise. The horse and man side by side existed for a long time, but still some of the possibilities of animals make one wonder.

• They have an amazing memory for smells. It is not uncommon for horses to return home or look for a lost owner.
• Horses have a good memory for hurts caused to them.
• Odd-toed ungulates understand cause-and-effect relationships, thanks to which they successfully remember various actions and are able to repeat them at the request of a person.
• The viewing angle in animals is maximum. Thanks to him, horses are difficult to take by surprise. Their vision is colored, however, the blue and red shades of the horse do not differ.
• Horses have developed ear for music. Odd-toed ungulates even have their favorite compositions. Animals can amplify the volume of the sound they hear. This feature is unique among representatives of the fauna.
• Their bones are twice as strong as granite. If a fracture occurs, it is very difficult and takes a long time to grow together.
• Horsehair was once used to make a bowstring. Today it is used for the manufacture of grinding shafts, brushes, brushes, fishing lines, bows.
• Hoof - keratinized skin with high sensitivity. It contains many nerve endings and blood vessels.
• A person who is constantly in contact with horses rarely encounters fatigue, depression, colds, diabetes, diseases of the spine and respiratory tract.
• pony horses render positive influence on the emotional background of children. Hippotherapy can significantly improve the health of people with problems in the musculoskeletal system.
• In some countries, the role of a guide for the blind is performed by a mini horse. The pony is pre-tested.
• The pygmy horse is a recently bred breed. The size of the animal at the withers does not exceed 96 cm.
• A horse usually lives for about 29 years, but there are also centenarians. A horse named Billy lived to be 62 years old. Until his death, he towed barges.

Horses are amazing animals. A rare person will not appreciate the beauty and grace of horses. The close relationship between equids and humans imposes responsibility on the latter. How many years the horse will live and how full its existence will be, depends entirely on people.