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• History of art of foreign countries. Middle Ages, Renaissance, . 1982 edition. The safety is good. The textbook covers the history of fine arts and architecture foreign countries from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance. In him…
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Ancient India is the name of the territory of several ancient states on the Hindustan peninsula.

2800-2600 BC e. Small agricultural settlements in Northwest India. Pre-Harappan cultures. The cult of the mother goddess is widespread.

2500-1600 BC e. Harappan civilization of the Bronze Age in the Indus Valley. Created, perhaps, by the Dravidians, the ancestors of most of the peoples of South India.

1500-1000 BC e. The penetration of Aryan tribes into India from the northwest.

End II-mid I millennium BC e. Several dozen states were formed in Northern India - Magadha, Koshala, Vriji, etc. At the same time, a system of varnas (caste system) was formed: brahmins (priests), rajanya (nobility), vish (common people), shudras (engaged in hard physical labor , practically slaves). It was forbidden to move from one varna to another and mixed marriages.

491-459 BC e. The reign of King Ajatashatru in the state of Magadha (modern state of Bihar) with the capital Pataliputra (modern Patia). He defeated the main enemy, the state of Koshara, as a result, Magadha became the strongest state in Northern India. After the death of Ajatashatru, the territorial expansion of Magadha was continued by his successors.

325-324 BC e. The invasion of the army of Alexander the Great. Revolt against the conquerors in 324 BC. e., as a result of which they were expelled, led by Chandragupta.

322-298 BC e. The reign of King Chandragupta I, the founder of the Mauryan dynasty in Magadha. He extended power to the whole of Northern India, annexed (305 BC) part of the territories of modern Balochistan and Afghanistan and founded the Mauryan Empire. Became the first emperor of India. Reign of Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Dynasty.

268-232 BC e. The highest flowering of the empire, which during this period occupied the territory of almost all of modern India (except for the extreme southern part of the peninsula). Under him, Buddhism became the ideological basis of the state. After the death of Ashoka, the process of disintegration of his state began.

180-72 BC e. Rule of the Shunga dynasty in Magadha. The power of the kings was limited only to the middle and lower parts of the Ganges valley.

28 BC e. - the first half of the III century. n. e. Rule of the Andhra kings in Magadha. The reasons for the fall of their state are still unknown.

320-VI c. Gupta state - the last major state ancient india. Founded by Chandragupta I (Gupta dynasty). During the period of greatest power - the reign of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya (380-414) - included "almost all of Northern India and a number of other territories, had access to the Arabian Sea. This entire period is characterized by extreme instability of political power.

606-646 Harsha's reign in the state of Sthaneshwara in Northern India. After his death, the state collapsed, mainly due to the lack of an heir. The beginning of a long period of fragmentation and civil strife in India.

The Iranian Plateau is a mountainous region on the territory of the modern states of Iran (67% of the country's area), Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq and southern Turkmenistan.

Armenian - a mountainous region mainly on the territory of modern Turkey, partly in Iran, Armenia and Azerbaijan.

Urartu is an ancient slave-owning state on the territory of the Armenian Highlands with its capital in the city of Tushpa (the shore of Lake Van, modern Turkey).

864-845 BC e. The reign of Aramu, the first ruler of the united Urartu.

825-810 BC e. The reign of king Ishpuini. It was marked by vigorous activity to strengthen the unified state.

786-764 BC e. The reign of Argishti I. The zenith of the power of the Urartian state. The gradual displacement of the Assyrians by the Urartians from the valley of the Upper Euphrates. 780-760 BC e. - Campaigns of Urartu to Assyria.

735-714 BC e. The reign of King Rusa I ended with the final defeat of Urartu by Assyria in the struggle for political hegemony in Asia Minor.

640 BC e. King Sarduri III voluntarily recognized himself as subject to Assyria.

600s BC e. Conquest of Urartu by the Medes.

558-530 BC e. The reign of Cyrus II the Great, the first king of the Achaemenid dynasty. He conquered Media, Lydia, Greek cities in Asia Minor, a significant part of Central Asia. He conquered Mesopotamia, including Babylonia, reducing it to the position of an ordinary province. The Achaemenid state he created became the largest in the world in a short time.

530-522 BC e. The reign of King Cambyses P. Conquered Egypt (525), was officially proclaimed pharaoh (founder of the XXVII dynasty).

522-486 BC e. The reign of King Darius I. Suppressed uprisings in Babylonia, Media, Elam, Egypt and Parthia. Conquered the northwestern part of India (518 BC). Failed in the Greco-Persian Wars. He carried out a number of military-political and socio-economic reforms. The heyday of the Persian Empire, its borders stretched from the Indus in the east to the Aegean Sea in the west, from Armenia in the north to the first Nile threshold in the south.

486-465 BC e. The reign of King Xerxes I. Continued attempts to create a world Persian monarchy. Military failures in Greece led him to death at the hands of the conspirators.

465-424 BC e. The reign of King Artaxerxes I Dolgoruky. Concluded with Athens the Kallia peace (449 BC), which fixed the defeat of the Persians in the Greco-Persian wars.

424-404 BC e. The reign of the Persian king Darius II. Further weakening of the state, strengthening the influence of the court nobility, palace intrigues and conspiracies, uprisings of conquered peoples.

404-358 BC e. The reign of King Artaxerxes II Mnemon. Further weakening of the state: Egypt, Cyprus, regions of Asia Minor separated from Persia.

358-338 BC e. The reign of King Artaxerxes III Och. He sought to strengthen the state, weakened under his predecessors. Suppressed the uprising (345 BC) in the city of Sidon (modern Saida, Lebanon), whose inhabitants were killed or enslaved. He fell victim to palace intrigues.

336-330 BC e. The reign of Darius III, the last king of the Achaemenid dynasty. After the defeat in the battle of Gaugamela with the troops of Alexander the Great, he fled to Baktrir, where he was killed by a local satrap.

330 BC e. Conquest of Persia by Alexander the Great.

264-651 AD e. State of the Sassanids. The reign of the Iranian Shahs from the Sassanid dynasty. Founder - Shah Ardashir I.

531-579 Reign of King Khosrow I Anushirvan of the Sassanid dynasty. He concluded a peace favorable to Persia with Byzantium (533-540), expanded the territory of his state. His fame is associated with administrative reforms (including the military), land reclamation, fair tax system, a policy of tolerance towards foreigners and Christians, and the promotion of education. Middle of the 7th century Arab conquest of Persia.

Parthia is an ancient kingdom southeast of the Caspian Sea, inhabited by nomadic Iranian tribes. Rival of Rome in the East.

250 BC e. The arrival of the Parn tribe (Parthians) to the province of the Seleucid state (with a center in Syria) - Parthia. The leader is King Arshak I, the founder of the only dynasty of Parthia - the Arshakids.

171-138 BC e. King Mithridates I creates the Parthian Empire. First, he annexes Media to Parthia, and then extends his power to Mesopotamia, where in 141 BC. e. recognized as the Babylonian king.

127-87 BC e. The reign of King Mithridates II the Great. The expansion of the territory of the Parthian kingdom from Mesopotamia to the Indus River, the conclusion of an agreement with Rome, the annexation of Armenia.

36 BC e. The unsuccessful campaign of Mark Antony, husband of the Egyptian queen Cleopatra VII, against the Parthians.

51-77 AD e. The reign of King Vologes I. In 62, he founded the dynasty of Armenian kings Arshakids, placing his brother Trdat on the throne of Armenia. The Arsacids ruled in Armenia until 428.

224 The death of the last Parthian king Artaban V while trying to suppress an uprising in the Iranian regions of the state. The entry of the territory of Parthia into the composition of Persia (the state of the Sassanids).

XIII-XII centuries Rise of power ancient state Elam in the southwestern part of the Iranian Plateau. The capital is the city of Susa (modern Shush). The power of Elam extended from the Persian Gulf in the south to the region of Media in the north.

1155 BC e. The Elamite king Kutir-Nakhkhunte II captured Babylonia (the domination of the Elamites ended after 40 years).

672 BC e. The emergence of the independent state of Media in the northwestern part of the Iranian Highlands with its capital in the city of Ektabana (modern Hamadan) after the expulsion of the Assyrians.

625-584 BC e. The reign of the Median king Cyaxares. In alliance with Babylonia, he destroyed the Assyrian state (605 BC), annexed the territories of Mana (the territory of modern Azerbaijan), Urartu and the eastern part of Asia Minor to Media.

550-549 before and. e. Persian conquest of Media.

It just so happens purely historically that the continent is located on the same common continent with such a part of the globe as Europe. Based on this, some part of the territory of the countries located on the Eurasian continent, partly geographically belong to Asia, and partly to the same Europe. In particular, such states as Kazakhstan, Turkey and Russia “suffer” from this kind of duality. So, if you are planning to travel to these countries, then you can get a unique opportunity to visit two parts of the world at once, Europe and Asia.

At the same time, it is worth noting that in Asia there are states that have the largest population on the planet today. Namely, this is India and China, on the territory of which more than one billion people live. And besides this, these same countries have the most ancient thousand-year culture. So, any trip to these Asian countries will give you the opportunity to see firsthand not only their modern achievements, but also their ancient culture.

Asian countries

Planning your trip to Asian countries, without fail, it is worth remembering that many of them differ quite significantly in their national traditions and religious preferences from what we are used to in the European part of this continent. In particular, almost all Asian countries are mostly Muslim countries, which implies rather strict rules of behavior in society, and this especially applies to the female half of those traveling to these Asian countries.

Parts of the world of Asia

Today, after a series of parade of sovereignties, which took place mainly in the first half of the last century, the countries of Asia have forty-ten independent states that are located on this territory. This figure, however, does not include the five states primarily located in Western Asia, which today are not legally recognized states by the world community. So that all these countries located on one or another parts of the world asia have a rather complicated history.

In particular, this applies to such states as the Republic of Abkhazia, the Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh and South Ossetia, which were formed as a result of the annexation of certain territories of other independent countries, such as Georgia and Azerbaijan. In addition, two more unrecognized states are located in Central Asia . In particular, this is the Republic of Cyprus, which as a result civil war was divided into two territorial entities with relatively independent jurisdiction and a territory that is part of the sovereign territory of Turkey.

And almost the same situation in East Asia, where for more than seventy years there has been such a state as the Republic of China, which is often called Taiwan. And although, over the past seventy years, the dispute over the ownership of this island state by China has not found a legal solution, the Republic of China, as an independent state.

It should be noted that, despite the fact that Central Asia in this regard looks more or less prosperous, but in this part of the Eurasian continent there are hidden territorial disputes and claims that do not have such a pronounced opposition of certain states. .

Asia map

According to the existing statistics of travel agencies and operators of this market, almost two-thirds of travelers in Asia prefer to make their trips to those countries that have a developed tourism infrastructure. Which, at a minimum, implies, in addition to comfortable hotels and a developed transport service, the presence of a fairly wide range of entertainment and attractions. However, a small traveler has slightly different preferences, namely, traveling along extreme routes that run not only in the mountains of this part of the Eurasian continent, but also in such parts of it as the Gobi desert. And here without detailed asia maps you just can't do it, even if you have the most modern navigator.

Asia tour

A significant difference between modern travelers in Asia is the fact that in the middle of the same past century, it was quite problematic to get to almost any point in this part of the Eurasian continent, because in those years, the same civil aviation and rail transport were not so developed. But today any Asia tour is publicly available and depends solely on your desire and financial capabilities.

History of Asia

Based on existing historical documents, confirmed by archaeological finds Asian history, has a rather exceptional significance for all modern mankind, because according to one of the scientific versions, the spread of primitive man throughout the planet began precisely from the Asian part of our Planet. And although this is a somewhat controversial theory, but in any case, taking a trip to such historical sites in China or India will give any admirer of history the most unforgettable experience.

Asia News

And if you are really planning on your next tariff vacation to take a trip to the countries of Asia, then it will not be out of place to take an interest in the latest events in this part of the Eurasian continent and in this regard, the latest Asia news. Which today can be gleaned not only from printed publications, but also from the Internet. Which, in turn, will at least give you the opportunity not to get into an unfavorable situation for a carefree pastime, at least in terms of the weather.

ANCIENT ASIA

The territory of Central Asia and Southern Siberia in the 2nd and 1st millennia BC was inhabited by Neolithic and Eneolithic agricultural and pastoral ethnic communities, largely Iranian-speaking. The southern part of this region gravitated towards the Middle Eastern civilization and was, in essence, its outskirts. As for the more northern regions (especially the steppe zone), they have been well studied by domestic archaeologists, who have discovered and explored here a great many sites and burial grounds of various archaeological cultures of the Neolithic and Eneolithic.

Since ancient times, many ethnic communities have moved along the steppe belt of Eurasia (in this way, in particular, during the Late Paleolithic, America was settled through the Bering Isthmus until it became a strait). In the Neolithic era, here, in the zone of risky farming or in conditions that did not contribute to agricultural occupations at all, Sub-Neolithic groups, mainly engaged in cattle breeding, found their niche. Initially, they were hunters, fishermen and owners of domesticated cattle grazing in the steppe. Later, around the turn of the 2nd-1st millennium BC, they were replaced by nomads riding horses. It took a lot of effort to master riding, not to mention purely technical innovations (harness and saddle), as well as changes in clothing (without pants made of strong material, leather is best, you won’t go far on horseback).

Experts most often associate the spread of horse riding and the nomadic pastoralism associated with it with Iranian-speaking tribes, whose number in the 1st millennium BC. in the Central Asian and South Siberian regions, as well as in the Iranian lands proper, has increased significantly. In the southern part of the region in the middle of this millennium, two Iranian-speaking tribal groups of nomads prevailed - saki And massagets. It was in the fight against the Massagetae that he found his death from a random arrow Persian king kings Cyrus II. Nomadic tribes of Kazakhstan and Altai lived to the north of the Saks and Massagets. The Minusinsk Basin, which was part of the zone of risky agriculture, was the center of distribution of the South Siberian bronze. Further to the east, nomads absolutely prevailed, as well as - in the forest-steppe and forest zones - semi-primitive hunters and gatherers.

The conquests of Alexander the Great led to the inclusion of the southern part of Central Asia into his empire, and after the death of Alexander, into the composition of Bactria and Parthia that appeared on its ruins, which have already been discussed. This, of course, contributed to the development of the region, especially in the field of trade relations. The nomadic tribes of Central and Central Asia, including the Xiongnu (Huns) and their neighbors, including the westward migrating Yuezhi (Kushans), gradually joined the trade and cultural achievements of the Hellenistic world in the western part of the region and China in its east. After the opening of the Great Silk Road, contacts between the two centers of civilization, the Middle East and the Far East, increased dramatically, and the tribes of Central and Central Asia borrowed the achievements of world culture even more actively. Moreover, those of the tribes that lived along the trade route or not far from it developed rapidly, and in some cases turned into city-states with clear elements of fairly noticeable urbanism. This, in particular, refers to the territory of the future Chinese East Turkestan (Kashgaria), the Ferghana Valley and Khorezm.

The first major state formation in Central Asia was Kushan kingdom, which included at the turn of our era, in addition to northern India, Afghanistan and a large part of the Central Asian lands. Here cities developed with their crafts and trade, much attention was paid to irrigation work, which contributed to the fertility of arid arable lands. Art flourished, especially related to sculptures and reliefs on Buddhist themes (Gandhara style). As for the Aral Khorezm, which was a separate satrapy back in the time of the Achaemenids, it was also first included in the Kushan kingdom, but after the collapse of this kingdom it continued to develop independently. However, a noticeable state formation in the 1st millennium BC. he hasn't been yet.

Among the large states of Central Asia of a somewhat later period, one should include Turkic Khaganate. Its emergence is closely connected with the problem of the emergence of an ethnic community. Turk, which subsequently expanded. There are many stories and legends about this. But the truth ultimately boils down to the fact that in the middle of the 1st millennium, based on the mixing of a number of ethnic groups and tribal proto state formations(Iranians, Tochars, Avars, Huns-Ashina, Oghuz-Tele, etc.) in the region of Dzungaria and northwestern Mongolia, a new ethnic community of Turks arose, rapidly tribalized and created its own state. In 551, the leader of the Turks took the title kagan and began to vigorously expand their possessions. His successors continued this policy, so that by the end of the VI century. The Turkic Khaganate turned into one of the strongest states in the region, with the power of which the Chinese empire had to reckon at the time of its highest prosperity (the Sui and Tang dynasties).

At the turn of the VI-VII centuries. The Khaganate broke up into Eastern and Western, and both of them eventually became dependent on China, and only at the turn of the 7th-8th centuries. freed from this addiction. The so-called Second Turkic Khaganate internally stronger than before. This was facilitated by useful borrowing from China, especially in the area of ​​administration. But in the middle of the 8th c. this kaganate ended its existence, having been conquered Uighurs also a Turkic-speaking people. Uyghur Khaganate existed until the 9th century, after which most of the Uighurs moved to East Turkestan, where a considerable number of them still live today.

The fragility of the first Turkic states (it should be taken into account that a considerable part of their population were nomads or semi-nomads) should be considered natural phenomenon. The Turks did not seek to gain a foothold in any one territory. On the contrary, continuing to lead a semi-nomadic way of life, they slowly but very successfully migrated mainly towards the more fertile western territories, gradually incorporating and assimilating neighboring agricultural peoples. Already in the middle of the VI century. the Turks reached the Volga and Ural regions, waged wars with Sasanian Iran. Gradually, they firmly established themselves in the western part of Central Asia and even in the eastern part of Europe. In the east, in their ancestral home, in Central Asia, there are relatively few Turks left.

In the southern territory of Central Asia at that time, ancient Iranian-speaking ethnic communities and state formations still prevailed. Many of them became part of Arab Caliphate or were Islamized, remaining independent. At the end of the ninth century actually separated from the disintegrating caliphate emirate of the Samanids with its capital in Bukhara became the center of attraction for the southern part of Central Asia. It included Maverannahr (regions between the Syr-Darya and Amu-Darya with the cities of Samarkand, Bukhara, Khujand), Khorezm and some other territories, including Iranian Khorasan. In everyday life, in addition to the official Arabic, the Dari and Farsi languages ​​began to predominate, and to a much lesser extent Turkic. Bukhara and especially Khorezm were famous for their active trade relations with different countries, including India, China and even Kievan Rus.

The end of the Samanids at the beginning of the 11th century. was associated with the onslaught of the Islamized Turks, first from Kashgaria (the state of the Karakhanids), and then the already mentioned nomadic Oghuz-Seljuks, who gradually moved west and south-west until they captured the center of the caliphate, Baghdad, and began to successfully push Byzantium . In the area of ​​the Aral Sea at that time, conditions were created for the rise of an independent Khorezm led by shahs. This state was strong for two centuries. It made the nomads of the Caspian and Aral regions dependent on itself and conducted active trade. Its capital, Urgench, was a major commercial and cultural center where Ibn Sina and Al Biruni lived and worked. Khorezm has become a natural mediator between the rich Middle Eastern lands and the nomadic world of the northern territories. Its internal structure and system of administration were typical of the advanced states of Islam. Successful foreign policy allowed Khorezm in the XI century. get rid of temporary vassalage from the Seljuks. Moreover, it led to the fact that at the beginning of the XIII century. under the rule of the Khorezm shahs were Bukhara, Samarkand and Herat. The country was at the zenith of its power. And it was at this time that, as mentioned, the first envoys of the warlike Mongols appeared on its borders. Genghis Khan.

Whirlwind passing at the beginning of the XIII century. through the Mongolian steppes and northern Chinese lands, on which at that time the states of the Jurchens (Jin) and Tanguts (Xi Xia) were located, Genghis Khan approached the Central Asian lands. Shah Muhammad sent him a message with a proposal to trade and divide the spheres of political influence (the ruler of the East and the ruler of the West). In response, envoys of Genghis Khan were sent to Bukhara, offering to conclude a peace treaty and consider Muhammad one of his sons. A Mongolian caravan with goods followed. Offended by the proposal of Genghis Khan, the Shah ordered the Mongols who arrived with the caravan to be destroyed. Then the Mongols opposed Khorezm and in a short time turned its flourishing cities into ruins, including Bukhara, Samarkand, Herat and Urgench. Muhammad's son Jalal-addin tried to organize resistance, but after a few years he was defeated and died. Central Asia for a long time was under the rule of the Mongol khans Genghis dynasty(mainly within the Chagatai ulus).

At the beginning of the XIV century. center Chagatayid states became a fertile region of Maverannahr. The Mongols converted to Islam and even did a lot to restore the ruined city life with its crafts and trade. In the middle of the same century, the ulus split into two khanates: Maverannahr And Mogolistan . Soon, the son of one of the beks of the Turkicized Mongol tribe advanced in Mogolistan Timur. Having put together a fighting squad, he arrived in Maverannahr and captured Samarkand, made it the capital of his possession. The semi-nomadic freemen, which formed the basis of Timur's army, demanded military campaigns and rich trophies, and in 1381, speaking out against Khorasan, Timur began his conquests.

Cruel and treacherous, leaving destruction and death behind him, mercilessly cracking down on many tens of thousands of captives and the civilian population of the captured areas, especially cities, the lame Timur (Timur-leng, or Tamerlane) conquered all of Central Asia and a number of adjacent territories in a relatively short period of time. regions. Successful trips to Iran, Golden Horde, India, the defeat of the troops of the Turkish Sultan Bayezid allowed Timur to become the ruler of a vast empire. The conquered countries and peoples were subjected to ruthless robbery, paid unbearable tribute, languished and ruined. The best craftsmen from all over the world were brought to Timur's beloved Samarkand, which, through their efforts, was quickly and richly rebuilt. Both Byzantium, which saw in him a possible counterbalance to the Ottoman Empire, and Ming China sent their embassies to Timur. The emperor of the Ming Dynasty arrogantly demanded recognition of his priority, which angered Timur, who began a campaign in China.

It is not known how everything would have ended if Timur had not died at the height of the movement towards China. The bloody internecine struggle for power of the Timurids and other contenders for it after the death of Tamerlane led to the collapse of his empire, literally torn to pieces. Samarkand fell to Timur's son Shakhrukh, who appointed his son, the grandson of Timur, the famous Ulugbek, famous, unlike his grandfather, not for wars and the destruction of people, but for his interest in the sciences. Ulugbek was a mathematician and astronomer. It was he who built an observatory in Samarkand and compiled astronomical tables.

After the assassination of Ulugbek by the conspirators, the influence of Samarkand began to decrease, and for some time the Perso-Tajik Khorasan came to the fore in the Central Asian region, where (in Herat) in the second half of the 15th century. the famous poet and thinker Navoi lived and worked. At the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. Turkic-Mongolian nomadic tribes of Desht-i-Kipchak (Polovtsy, Uzbeks), who lived on the territory of Kazakhstan and the southern Russian steppes, invaded the possessions of the Timurids. Their leader, Sheibani Khan, by 1507 conquered almost all of Central Asia, but not for long. In 1510, he was killed in a decisive battle with the Safavid Khan Ismail. The Sheibani state collapsed, and it was at this time that a native of Fergana, and then the ruler of Kabul, Timurid Babur managed to capture Samarkand, strengthen himself and begin his successful campaign against India.

By 1513, the Uzbeks firmly entrenched themselves in the territory of Maverannahr and settled here, gradually turning into farmers. The 16th century saw the heyday of the Uzbek state of the descendants of Sheibani, who took care of irrigation, strengthened economic ties and developed trade. Under them, cities flourished again, starting with Bukhara and Samarkand. The 16th-17th centuries passed under the sign of a new political redistribution in the region. As independent state formations stood out Bukhara And Khiva Khanate. A little later, at the beginning of the 18th century, on the territory of Maverannakhr, Khanate of Kokand under whose authority the district of Tashkent soon fell. Wars between Bukhara and Kokand in the 18th and especially in the 19th century. contributed to the strengthening of the influence of Russia here, which had long sought to strengthen its ties, primarily trade, with the rich lands of Central Asia.

The Bukhara Khanate covered most of modern Tajikistan. In the XVIII century. Bukhara was briefly conquered by the Iranian Nadir Shah. Agriculture and trade flourished in the khanate, despite the wars with Kokand. Iranian-speaking Tajiks here peacefully coexisted with Turkic-speaking Uzbeks. The Khiva Khanate was dominated by Turkmens related to the Seljuks-Oguzes. Part of the Turkmens was under the rule of Bukhara. In the 17th century Turkmens and Uzbeks were at enmity in the struggle for power in Khorezm. Proximity to Russia contributed to the strengthening of ties with it (trade went mainly through Astrakhan). The Turkmen lands and the Khiva Khanate were in the 18th and early 19th centuries. at the center of Russia's geopolitical interests in Central Asia. Various missions and expeditions were sent here. Assistance was provided when needed. Separate groups of Turkmens were given permission to resettle in the South Russian lands.

The Turkic-Mongolian tribes of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan consolidated around the 15th century. mainly in Mogolistan. The Kirghiz as a nationality were formed in the Tien Shan region. In the fight against the Dzungars Oirats(Kalmyks) they are in the XVI century. in large part they migrated to the Pamir-Alay region and later ended up as part of Kokand. More numerous Kazakhs, after the departure of the Uzbeks of Sheibani Khan to the agricultural regions, settled the territory of modern Kazakhstan, creating here Kazakh Khanate, consisting of three zhuzes- the Elder (near Semirechye), the Middle (the valleys of the Syr Darya, Ishim and Tobol) and the Younger, in the western part of the Khanate. In the 17th century on the basis of these zhuzes, independent khanates arose, each of which pursued its own policy, gravitating, depending on geopolitical interests, to either Qing China or Russia. Already at the beginning of the XVIII century. the khans of the Little Zhuz were ready to accept Russian citizenship. A little later, this example was followed by the Middle Zhuz. Senior zhuz in the middle of the 18th century. was divided between Dzungaria, soon conquered by Qing China, and Kokand. In the first half of the XIX century. many Kazakhs of the Senior Zhuz preferred to migrate from Kokand and Qing China under the auspices of Russia, which by that time had built many of its fortresses on the lands of Kazakhstan, including the city of Verny (Alma-Ata). In conclusion, we note that part of the Dzungarian Kalmyks under the pressure of the Mongols, Qing China and Kazakh zhuzes in the 17th century. migrated to the lower Volga region, where they created Kalmyk Khanate, in the same century became part of Russia.

• Mogolistan, or Moghulistan, (XIV-XV centuries) is the territory of East Turkestan and Semirechye with a predominantly nomadic population. It was ruled by representatives of noble Turkic-Mongolian families. Mogul- the term used in Iran to refer to the Mongols.