A historical fact is located not only in historical time, but also in historical space, which is understood as a set of processes: natural, economic, political, etc., occurring in a particular territory at a certain historical time. Works on the history of Russia in the pre-Soviet period began with a section on the geographical position of the country, its nature, climate, landscape, etc. This is especially true for the books by S.M. Solovyov and V.O. Klyuchevsky.

CM. Solovyov, V.O. Klyuchevsky noted in their writings that geographical conditions of Eastern Europe markedly different from the conditions of Western Europe. The shores of Western Europe are heavily indented by inland seas and deep bays, dotted with many islands. Proximity to the seas is a characteristic feature of Western European states.

The relief of Western Europe differs sharply from that of Eastern Europe. The surface of Western Europe is extremely uneven. In addition to the massive ridge of the Alps, almost every European country has a mountain range, which serves as a kind of skeleton, or "ridge" of the country. So, in England there is a chain of the Pennines, in Spain - the Pyrenees, in Italy - the Apennines, in Sweden and Norway - the Scandinavian mountains. In the European part of Russia, there is no point higher than 500 meters above sea level. Ridge Ural mountains has little effect on the character of the surface.

CM. Solovyov draws attention to the fact that the borders of the Western European states are delineated by natural boundaries - seas, mountain ranges, and high-water rivers. Russia also has natural borders: along the perimeter of Russia there are seas, rivers, mountain peaks. On the territory of Russia there is a vast strip of steppes - the Great Steppe, stretching from the Carpathian Mountains to Altai. The great rivers of the East European Plain - the Dnieper, the Don, the Volga - were not obstacles, but rather roads connecting different regions of the country. Their dense network permeates a huge space, allowing you to reach its most remote corners. The whole history of the country is connected with rivers - it was along these "living roads" that the colonization of new territories was carried out.

Russia is a vast plain, open to the north winds, which are not hindered by mountain ranges. The climate of Russia belongs to the continental type. Winter temperatures decrease as you move eastward. Siberia, with its inexhaustible supply of arable land, is for the most part unsuitable for agriculture. In its eastern regions, lands located at the latitude of Scotland cannot be cultivated at all.

Just like Inner Asia, Africa and Australia, Russia is located in a zone of sharply continental climate. The temperature difference between the seasons reaches 70 degrees or more; the distribution of precipitation is extremely uneven. Precipitation is most abundant in the northwest, along the Baltic coast, where warm winds bring it; as you move to the southeast, they decrease. In other words, precipitation is most abundant where the soil is poorest, which is why Russia generally suffers from drought - in Kazan, for example, there is half as much precipitation as in Paris.

The most important consequence of the geographical position of Russia is the extreme shortness of the period suitable for sowing and harvesting. Around Novgorod and Petersburg, the agricultural period lasts only four months a year; in the central regions, near Moscow, it increases to five and a half months; in the steppe it lasts six months. In Western Europe, this period lasts 8-9 months. In other words, the Western European peasant has almost twice as much time for field work as the Russian.

Climate- this is a long-term weather regime characteristic of a particular area. It manifests itself in a regular change of all types of weather observed in this area.

Climate influences living and non-living nature. In close dependence on the climate are water bodies, soil, vegetation, animals. Individual sectors of the economy, primarily agriculture, are also very dependent on climate.

The climate is formed as a result of the interaction of many factors: the amount of solar radiation entering the earth's surface; atmospheric circulation; the nature of the underlying surface. At the same time, climate-forming factors themselves depend on the geographical conditions of a given area, primarily on geographic latitude.

The geographic latitude of the area determines the angle of incidence of the sun's rays, the receipt of a certain amount of heat. However, obtaining heat from the Sun also depends on the proximity of the ocean. In places far from the oceans, there is little precipitation, and the mode of precipitation is uneven (in the warm period more than in the cold), cloudiness is low, winters are cold, summers are warm, and the annual temperature amplitude is large. Such a climate is called continental, as it is typical of places located in the depths of continents. Above the water surface, a maritime climate is formed, which is characterized by: a smooth course of air temperature, with small daily and annual temperature amplitudes, high cloudiness, a uniform and fairly large amount of precipitation.

The climate is greatly influenced by sea ​​currents. Warm currents warm the atmosphere in the areas where they flow. For example, the warm North Atlantic current creates favorable conditions for the growth of forests in the southern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula, while most of the island of Greenland, which lies approximately at the same latitudes as the Scandinavian Peninsula, but is outside the zone of influence of the warm current, all year round covered with a thick layer of ice.

plays an important role in shaping the climate relief. You already know that with the rise of the terrain for each kilometer, the air temperature drops by 5-6 ° C. Therefore, on the alpine slopes of the Pamirs, the average annual temperature is 1 ° C, although it is located just north of the tropic.

The location of mountain ranges has a great influence on the climate. For example, the Caucasus Mountains hold back moist sea winds, and their windward slopes facing the Black Sea receive much more precipitation than their leeward slopes. At the same time, the mountains serve as an obstacle to the cold northern winds.

There is a dependence of climate and prevailing winds. On the territory of the East European Plain, westerly winds from the Atlantic Ocean prevail for almost the entire year, so winters in this area are relatively mild.

Districts Far East are under the influence of the monsoons. In winter, winds constantly blow from the depths of the mainland. They are cold and very dry, so there is little rainfall. In summer, on the contrary, the winds bring a lot of moisture from the Pacific Ocean. In autumn, when the wind from the ocean subsides, the weather is usually sunny and calm. This is the best time of the year in the area.

Climate characteristics are statistical inferences from long-term weather records (in temperate latitudes, 25-50-year series are used; in the tropics, their duration may be shorter), primarily over the following main meteorological elements: atmospheric pressure, wind speed and direction, temperature and air humidity, cloudiness and precipitation. They also take into account the duration of solar radiation, the visibility range, the temperature of the upper layers of soil and water bodies, the evaporation of water from the earth's surface into the atmosphere, the height and condition of the snow cover, various atmospheric phenomena and ground-based hydrometeors (dew, ice, fog, thunderstorms, snowstorms, etc.) . In the XX century. The climatic indicators included characteristics of the elements of the heat balance of the earth's surface, such as total solar radiation, radiation balance, heat exchange between the earth's surface and the atmosphere, and heat consumption for evaporation. Complex indicators are also used, i.e., functions of several elements: various coefficients, factors, indices (for example, continentality, aridity, moisture), etc.

Climatic zones

Long-term average values ​​of meteorological elements (annual, seasonal, monthly, daily, etc.), their sums, frequencies, etc. are called climate standards: the corresponding values ​​for individual days, months, years, etc. are considered as a deviation from these norms.

Climate maps are called climatic(temperature distribution map, pressure distribution map, etc.).

Depending on the temperature conditions, prevailing air masses and winds, climatic zones.

The main climatic zones are:

• equatorial;
• two tropical;
• two moderate;
• arctic and antarctic.

Between the main belts there are transitional climatic zones: subequatorial, subtropical, subarctic, subantarctic. In transitional zones, air masses change with the seasons. They come here from neighboring zones, so the climate of the subequatorial zone in summer is similar to the climate of the equatorial zone, and in winter - to the tropical climate; the climate of the subtropical zones in summer is similar to the climate of the tropical, and in winter - with the climate of the temperate zones. This is due to the seasonal movement of atmospheric pressure belts over the globe following the Sun: in summer - to the north, in winter - to the south.

Climatic zones are divided into climatic regions. So, for example, in the tropical zone of Africa, areas of tropical dry and tropical humid climates are distinguished, and in Eurasia, the subtropical zone is divided into areas of the Mediterranean, continental and monsoon climate. In mountainous areas, altitudinal zonation is formed due to the fact that air temperature decreases with height.

Diversity of Earth's climates

The classification of climates provides an ordered system for characterizing climate types, their zoning and mapping. Let us give examples of climate types prevailing over vast territories (Table 1).

Arctic and Antarctic climate zones

Antarctic and arctic climate dominates in Greenland and Antarctica, where the average monthly temperatures are below 0 °C. During the dark winter season, these regions receive absolutely no solar radiation, although there are twilight and auroras. Even in summer, the sun's rays fall on the earth's surface at a slight angle, which reduces the heating efficiency. Most of the incoming solar radiation is reflected by the ice. In both summer and winter, low temperatures prevail in the elevated regions of the Antarctic Ice Sheet. The climate of the interior of Antarctica is much colder than the climate of the Arctic, since the southern mainland is large and high, and the Arctic Ocean moderates the climate, despite the wide distribution of pack ice. In summer, during short periods of warming, drift ice sometimes melts. Precipitation on ice sheets falls in the form of snow or small particles of ice mist. Inland regions receive only 50-125 mm of precipitation annually, but more than 500 mm can fall on the coast. Sometimes cyclones bring clouds and snow to these areas. Snowfalls are often accompanied by strong winds that carry significant masses of snow, blowing it off the slope. Strong katabatic winds with snowstorms blow from the cold glacial sheet, bringing snow to the coast.

Table 1. Climates of the Earth

Climate type	Climate zone	Average temperature, ° С		Mode and amount of atmospheric precipitation, mm	Atmospheric circulation	Territory
Equatorial	Equatorial			During a year. 2000	Warm and humid equatorial air masses form in the area of ​​low atmospheric pressure.	Equatorial regions of Africa, South America and Oceania
tropical monsoon	Subequatorial			Mostly during the summer monsoon, 2000		South and Southeast Asia, West and Central Africa, Northern Australia
tropical dry	Tropical			During the year, 200		North Africa, Central Australia
Mediterranean	Subtropical			Mainly in winter, 500	In summer - anticyclones at high atmospheric pressure; winter - cyclonic activity	Mediterranean, Southern coast of Crimea, South Africa, Southwestern Australia, Western California
subtropical dry	Subtropical			During a year. 120	Dry continental air masses	Inland parts of the continents
temperate maritime	Moderate			During a year. 1000	westerly winds	Western parts of Eurasia and North America
temperate continental	Moderate			During a year. 400	westerly winds	Inland parts of the continents
moderate monsoon	Moderate			Mostly during the summer monsoon, 560		Eastern margin of Eurasia
Subarctic	Subarctic			During the year, 200	Cyclones prevail	Northern margins of Eurasia and North America
Arctic (Antarctic)	Arctic (Antarctic)			During the year, 100	Anticyclones predominate	The water area of ​​the Arctic Ocean and mainland Australia

subarctic continental climate is formed in the north of the continents (see the climate map of the atlas). In winter, arctic air prevails here, which is formed in areas of high pressure. In the eastern regions of Canada, Arctic air is distributed from the Arctic.

Continental subarctic climate in Asia, it is characterized by the largest annual amplitude of air temperature on the globe (60-65 ° С). The continentality of the climate here reaches its limit.

The average temperature in January varies across the territory from -28 to -50 °C, and in lowlands and hollows, due to air stagnation, its temperature is even lower. In Oymyakon (Yakutia), a record negative air temperature for the Northern Hemisphere (-71 °C) was registered. The air is very dry.

Summer in subarctic belt although short, but quite warm. The average monthly temperature in July ranges from 12 to 18 °C (daily maximum is 20-25 °C). Over the summer, more than half of the annual amount of precipitation falls, amounting to 200-300 mm on the flat territory, and up to 500 mm per year on the windward slopes of the hills.

The climate of the subarctic zone of North America is less continental than the corresponding climate of Asia. It has less cold winters and colder summers.

temperate climate zone

The temperate climate of the western coasts of the continents has pronounced features of the maritime climate and is characterized by the predominance of sea air masses throughout the year. It is observed on the Atlantic coast of Europe and the Pacific coast of North America. The Cordilleras are a natural boundary separating the coast with a maritime type of climate from the inland regions. The European coast, except for Scandinavia, is open to the free access of temperate maritime air.

The constant transfer of sea air is accompanied by high cloudiness and causes protracted springs, in contrast to the interior of the continental regions of Eurasia.

winter in temperate zone warm on the western coasts. The warming effect of the oceans is enhanced by warm sea currents washing the western shores of the continents. The average temperature in January is positive and varies across the territory from north to south from 0 to 6 °C. Intrusions of arctic air can lower it (on the Scandinavian coast down to -25°C, and on the French coast down to -17°C). With the spread of tropical air to the north, the temperature rises sharply (for example, it often reaches 10 ° C). In winter, on the western coast of Scandinavia, there are large positive temperature deviations from the average latitude (by 20 ° C). The temperature anomaly on the Pacific coast of North America is smaller and does not exceed 12 °С.

Summer is rarely hot. The average temperature in July is 15-16°C.

Even during the day, the air temperature rarely exceeds 30 °C. Cloudy and rainy weather is typical for all seasons due to frequent cyclones. There are especially many cloudy days on the western coast of North America, where cyclones are forced to slow down in front of the Cordillera mountain systems. In connection with this, the weather regime in the south of Alaska is characterized by great uniformity, where there are no seasons in our understanding. Eternal autumn reigns there, and only plants remind of the onset of winter or summer. Annual rainfall ranges from 600 to 1000 mm, and on the slopes of mountain ranges - from 2000 to 6000 mm.

In conditions of sufficient moisture, broad-leaved forests are developed on the coasts, and in conditions of excessive moisture, coniferous forests. The lack of summer heat reduces the upper limit of the forest in the mountains to 500-700 m above sea level.

The temperate climate of the eastern coasts of the continents It has monsoonal features and is accompanied by a seasonal change of winds: in winter, northwestern flows predominate, in summer - southeast. It is well expressed on the eastern coast of Eurasia.

In winter, with a northwest wind, cold continental temperate air spreads to the coast of the mainland, which is the reason for the low average temperature of the winter months (from -20 to -25 ° C). Clear, dry, windy weather prevails. In the southern regions of the coast, there is little rainfall. The north of the Amur region, Sakhalin and Kamchatka often fall under the influence of cyclones moving over the Pacific Ocean. Therefore, in winter there is a thick snow cover, especially in Kamchatka, where its maximum height reaches 2 m.

In summer, with a southeasterly wind, temperate sea air spreads on the coast of Eurasia. Summers are warm, with an average July temperature of 14 to 18 °C. Precipitation is frequent due to cyclonic activity. Their annual amount is 600-1000 mm, and most of it falls in the summer. Fog is frequent at this time of the year.

Unlike Eurasia, the eastern coast of North America is characterized by maritime climate features, which are expressed in the predominance of winter precipitation and the maritime type of annual air temperature variation: the minimum occurs in February, and the maximum occurs in August, when the ocean is at its warmest.

The Canadian anticyclone, unlike the Asian one, is unstable. It forms far from the coast and is often interrupted by cyclones. Winter here is mild, snowy, wet and windy. In snowy winters, the height of snowdrifts reaches 2.5 m. With a southerly wind, icy conditions often occur. Therefore, some streets in some cities in eastern Canada have iron railings for pedestrians. Summers are cool and rainy. The annual rainfall is 1000 mm.

temperate continental climate it is most clearly expressed on the Eurasian continent, especially in the regions of Siberia, Transbaikalia, northern Mongolia, and also on the territory of the Great Plains in North America.

A feature of the temperate continental climate is the large annual amplitude of air temperature, which can reach 50-60 °C. In the winter months, with a negative radiation balance, the earth's surface cools down. The cooling effect of the land surface on the surface layers of air is especially great in Asia, where a powerful Asian anticyclone forms in winter and cloudy, calm weather prevails. The temperate continental air formed in the area of ​​the anticyclone has a low temperature (-0°...-40°C). In valleys and basins, due to radiation cooling, the air temperature can drop to -60 °C.

In the middle of winter, the continental air in the lower layers becomes even colder than the Arctic. This very cold air of the Asian anticyclone spreads to Western Siberia, Kazakhstan, southeastern regions of Europe.

The winter Canadian anticyclone is less stable than the Asian anticyclone due to the smaller size of the North American continent. Winters here are less severe, and their severity does not increase towards the center of the mainland, as in Asia, but, on the contrary, decreases somewhat due to the frequent passage of cyclones. Continental temperate air in North America is warmer than continental temperate air in Asia.

The formation of a continental temperate climate is significantly influenced by the geographical features of the territory of the continents. In North America mountain ranges The Cordillera is a natural boundary separating the coast with a maritime climate from the inland areas with a continental climate. In Eurasia, a temperate continental climate is formed over a vast expanse of land, approximately from 20 to 120 ° E. e. Unlike North America, Europe is open to free penetration of sea air from the Atlantic deep into the interior. This is facilitated not only by the western transport of air masses, which prevails in temperate latitudes, but also by the flat nature of the relief, the strong indentation of the coasts and the deep penetration into the land of the Baltic and North Seas. Therefore, a temperate climate of a lesser degree of continentality is formed over Europe compared to Asia.

In winter, the Atlantic sea air moving over the cold land surface of the temperate latitudes of Europe retains its physical properties for a long time, and its influence extends to the whole of Europe. In winter, as the Atlantic influence weakens, the air temperature decreases from west to east. In Berlin it is 0 °С in January, -3 °С in Warsaw, -11 °С in Moscow. At the same time, the isotherms over Europe have a meridional orientation.

The orientation of Eurasia and North America with a wide front to the Arctic basin contributes to the deep penetration of cold air masses onto the continents throughout the year. Intense meridional transport of air masses is especially characteristic of North America, where arctic and tropical air often replace each other.

Tropical air entering the plains of North America with southern cyclones is also slowly transformed due to its high speed of movement, high moisture content and continuous low cloudiness.

In winter, the result of intense meridional circulation of air masses are the so-called "jumps" of temperatures, their large daily amplitude, especially in areas where cyclones are frequent: in the north of Europe and Western Siberia, the Great Plains of North America.

In the cold period, they fall in the form of snow, a snow cover forms, which protects the soil from deep freezing and creates a supply of moisture in the spring. The height of the snow cover depends on the duration of its occurrence and the amount of precipitation. In Europe, a stable snow cover on the flat territory is formed east of Warsaw, its maximum height reaches 90 cm in the northeastern regions of Europe and Western Siberia. In the center of the Russian Plain, the height of the snow cover is 30–35 cm, and in Transbaikalia it is less than 20 cm. On the plains of Mongolia, in the center of the anticyclonic region, snow cover forms only in some years. The absence of snow along with the low winter air temperature causes the presence of permafrost, which is no longer observed anywhere on the globe under these latitudes.

In North America, the Great Plains have little snow cover. To the east of the plains, tropical air begins to take part in the frontal processes more and more, it intensifies the frontal processes, which causes heavy snowfalls. In the Montreal area, the snow cover lasts up to four months, and its height reaches 90 cm.

Summer in the continental regions of Eurasia is warm. The average July temperature is 18-22°C. In dry regions of southeastern Europe and Central Asia the average air temperature in July reaches 24-28 °C.

In North America, continental air is somewhat colder in summer than in Asia and Europe. This is due to the smaller extent of the mainland in latitude, the large indentation of its northern part with bays and fjords, the abundance of large lakes, and the more intense development of cyclonic activity compared to the inland regions of Eurasia.

In the temperate zone, the annual amount of precipitation on the flat territory of the continents varies from 300 to 800 mm; on the windward slopes of the Alps, more than 2000 mm falls. Most of the precipitation falls in the summer, which is primarily due to an increase in the moisture content of the air. In Eurasia, there is a decrease in precipitation across the territory from west to east. In addition, the amount of precipitation also decreases from north to south due to a decrease in the frequency of cyclones and an increase in air dryness in this direction. In North America, a decrease in precipitation across the territory is noted, on the contrary, in the direction to the west. Why do you think?

Most of the land in the continental temperate zone is occupied by mountain systems. These are the Alps, the Carpathians, the Altai, the Sayans, the Cordillera, the Rocky Mountains, and others. In the mountainous regions, the climatic conditions differ significantly from the climate of the plains. In summer, the air temperature in the mountains drops rapidly with altitude. In winter, when cold air masses invade, the air temperature in the plains often turns out to be lower than in the mountains.

The influence of mountains on precipitation is great. Precipitation increases on the windward slopes and at some distance in front of them, and weakens on the leeward slopes. For example, differences in annual precipitation between the western and eastern slopes of the Ural Mountains in places reach 300 mm. In mountains with height, precipitation increases to a certain critical level. In the Alps, the level of the greatest amount of precipitation occurs at an altitude of about 2000 m, in the Caucasus - 2500 m.

Subtropical climate zone

Continental subtropical climate determined by the seasonal change of temperate and tropical air. The average temperature of the coldest month in Central Asia is below zero in places, in the northeast of China -5...-10°C. The average temperature of the warmest month is in the range of 25-30°C, while daily highs can exceed 40-45°C.

The most strongly continental climate in the air temperature regime is manifested in the southern regions of Mongolia and in the north of China, where the center of the Asian anticyclone is located in the winter season. Here, the annual amplitude of air temperature is 35-40 °С.

Sharply continental climate in the subtropical zone for the high-mountainous regions of the Pamirs and Tibet, whose height is 3.5-4 km. The climate of the Pamirs and Tibet is characterized by cold winters, cool summers and low rainfall.

In North America, a continental arid subtropical climate is formed in closed plateaus and in intermountain basins located between the Coastal and Rocky Ranges. Summers are hot and dry, especially in the south, where the average July temperature is above 30°C. The absolute maximum temperature can reach 50 °C and above. In Death Valley, a temperature of +56.7 °C was recorded!

Humid subtropical climate characteristic of the eastern coasts of the continents north and south of the tropics. The main areas of distribution are the southeastern United States, some southeastern regions of Europe, northern India and Myanmar, eastern China and southern Japan, northeastern Argentina, Uruguay and southern Brazil, the coast of Natal in South Africa and the east coast of Australia. Summer in the humid subtropics is long and hot, with the same temperatures as in the tropics. The average temperature of the warmest month exceeds +27 °С, and the maximum temperature is +38 °С. Winters are mild, with average monthly temperatures above 0°C, but occasional frosts have a detrimental effect on vegetable and citrus plantations. In the humid subtropics, the average annual precipitation ranges from 750 to 2000 mm, the distribution of precipitation over the seasons is quite uniform. In winter, rains and rare snowfalls are brought mainly by cyclones. In summer, precipitation falls mainly in the form of thunderstorms associated with powerful inflows of warm and humid oceanic air, characteristic of monsoon circulation. East Asia. Hurricanes (or typhoons) appear in late summer and autumn, especially in the Northern Hemisphere.

subtropical climate with dry summers is typical of the western coasts of the continents north and south of the tropics. in southern Europe and North Africa such climatic conditions are typical for the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, which was the reason to call this climate also mediterranean. A similar climate is in southern California, the central regions of Chile, in the extreme south of Africa and in a number of areas in southern Australia. All these regions have hot summers and mild winters. As in the humid subtropics, there are occasional frosts in winter. In inland areas, summer temperatures are much higher than on the coasts, and often the same as in tropical deserts. In general, clear weather prevails. In summer, on the coasts near which they pass ocean currents often foggy. For example, in San Francisco, summers are cool, foggy, and the warmest month is September. The maximum precipitation is associated with the passage of cyclones in winter, when the prevailing air currents mix towards the equator. The influence of anticyclones and downward air currents over the oceans determine the dryness of the summer season. The average annual precipitation in a subtropical climate varies from 380 to 900 mm and reaches maximum values ​​on the coasts and mountain slopes. In the summer, there is usually not enough rainfall for the normal growth of trees, and therefore a specific type of evergreen shrub vegetation develops there, known as maquis, chaparral, mal i, macchia and fynbosh.

Equatorial climate zone

Equatorial type of climate distributed in equatorial latitudes in the Amazon basin in South America and the Congo in Africa, on the Malay Peninsula and on the islands of Southeast Asia. Usually the average annual temperature is about +26 °C. Due to the high noon position of the Sun above the horizon and the same length of the day throughout the year, seasonal temperature fluctuations are small. Moist air, cloudiness and dense vegetation prevent nighttime cooling and maintain maximum daytime temperatures below +37 °C, lower than at higher latitudes. The average annual rainfall in the humid tropics ranges from 1500 to 3000 mm and is usually evenly distributed over the seasons. Precipitation is mainly associated with the intratropical convergence zone, which is located slightly north of the equator. Seasonal shifts of this zone to the north and south in some areas lead to the formation of two precipitation maxima during the year, separated by drier periods. Every day, thousands of thunderstorms roll over the humid tropics. In the intervals between them, the sun shines in full force.

Detailed solution final task 6 in geography for grade 5 students, authors V. P. Dronov, L. E. Savelyeva 2015

• Gdz Geography workbook for grade 6 can be found

1. What is the biosphere? What are its constituent parts?

Biosphere - the outer shell of the Earth, inhabited by living organisms and transformed by them. The biosphere includes plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, protozoa.

2. How does the biological cycle occur in nature? What is its significance for our planet?

Life on Earth is supported by solar energy. Plants produce primary organic matter through photosynthesis under the action of sunlight. Therefore, plants are producer organisms. Animals feed on plants or other animals, i.e., ready-made organic substances; they are consumer organisms. Fungi and bacteria decompose the remains of dead organisms. They convert organic substances into inorganic substances, which are again consumed by plants. Thus, bacteria and fungi are destructive organisms. During the decomposition of organic substances, heat is released, i.e., energy that was once absorbed from the Sun by plants. If the destroying organisms disappeared, the biosphere would be poisoned, since many decay products of organic substances are poisonous. This is how the biological cycle occurs in nature. The biological cycle binds together all parts of nature.

3. Why are all the outer shells of the Earth under the influence of living organisms?

The role of living organisms is great. They, as a part of nature, by their activity influence all the shells of the Earth. This is possible because all living and non-living components environment closely connected. The biosphere, on the other hand, covers partially all the shells of the Earth.

4. What changes would occur on Earth if plants disappeared from it?

With the disappearance of plants, herbivores would immediately die. After all other living organisms are connected by the food chain. The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere would decrease and the amount of carbon dioxide. The water cycle would be disrupted. Life on earth without plants is impossible.

5. How is living matter distributed on our planet? What determines the saturation of the biosphere with life?

Life is distributed very unevenly in the biosphere. The main part of living organisms is concentrated on the boundaries of contact between air, water and rocks. Therefore, the surface of the land and the upper layers of the waters of the seas and oceans are more densely populated. This is due to the fact that here are the most favorable conditions: a lot of oxygen, moisture, light, nutrients. The thickness of the layer most saturated with organisms is only a few tens of meters. The farther up and down from it, the more rarefied and monotonous life is. The greatest concentration of life is noted in the soil - a special natural body of the biosphere.

6. The strata of the World Ocean are very diverse and rich in living organisms. What are the main reasons for their uneven distribution?

The saturation of the living strata of the World Ocean depends on the temperature of the waters, illumination, and oxygen saturation. Therefore, the number of living organisms in the ocean varies from the equator to the poles, in accordance with the course of temperatures. Similarly, the saturation of life in the ocean changes with depth and in the direction from the coast to the open ocean.

7. What causes the distribution of living organisms on land?

The distribution of living organisms on land depends on the climate - temperature and moisture.

8. How marine organisms adapt to different environments?

Small organisms - plankton - have adapted to soar in the water. They live in suspension and move with the flow of water. Fish and marine animals actively move in the water column. As a rule, fish and marine animals have a streamlined body shape, which reduces water resistance. Bottom animals have adapted to live in conditions of high water pressure. Their body is flattened. Plants in the seas change their color depending on the depth to enhance photosynthesis. There is no vegetation deeper than 1000 m.

9. Compare moist equatorial forests and temperate forests on the following grounds: geographical position, climate features, flora and fauna, significance for the nature of the Earth.

Equatorial forests are located in equatorial latitudes (the coast of the Gulf of Guinea, the Amazonian lowland, the islands of Malaysia and Indonesia). Temperate forests are common in the temperate zone. Mixed and broad-leaved forests occupy the Atlantic coast of North America, Europe, and the eastern coast of Eurasia. Coniferous forests stretch in wide strips between 50-650 N. latitude.

The climate of the equatorial forests is characterized by constant high temperatures (about 250C), excessive moisture throughout the year. Temperate forests are located in the temperate climate zone. This climate is characterized by a pronounced change of seasons. The warm season of the year with positive temperatures and precipitation in the form of rains and the cold season with negative temperatures and the formation of a stable snow cover alternate.

Equatorial forests have the richest flora and fauna among all natural areas. In the equatorial forests there are a lot valuable breeds trees: ebony (black) tree, mahogany, hevea rubber. Equatorial forests are the birthplace of many cultivated plants: oil palm, cocoa. It's easier to find ten trunks in the equatorial forest different types trees than ten trunks of the same species. The animal world is also very rich. There are especially many insects and snakes, birds. Temperate forests include coniferous forests called taiga, mixed and broadleaf forests. They do not have such a variety of plants and animals, since the conditions for life here are less favorable.

Of course, equatorial forests are of great value for the nature of the Earth. This is due to the richness and uniqueness of this natural complex. However, the importance of temperate forests is great. Coniferous forests are the main supplier of oxygen to the atmosphere.

10. What forests are common in Russia? Why should they be treated with care?

On the territory of Russia, mixed, broad-leaved and coniferous forests (taiga) are common. The ecological state of the environment largely depends on forests. Forests affect the filling of rivers with water, the retention of snow in the fields. The destruction of forests leads to the development of erosion. Forests are a habitat for numerous animals and plants.

12. In what forests is the richest flora and fauna? What is it connected with?

The richest flora and fauna in the equatorial forests. Huge species diversity is associated with favorable climatic conditions.

13. In what climatic conditions do savannahs and steppes spread on the plains, and in which deserts?

In the interior of the continents grassy plains extend. There is not enough moisture for the growth of forests, but enough for grasses. Semi-deserts and deserts are common in all climatic zones in areas with a very dry climate.

14. Why is soil considered a link between animate and inanimate nature?

The soil consists of both organic and inorganic parts. Living organisms and components of inanimate nature (parent rock, water, air) participate in its formation.

15. Select from books, magazines, newspapers, television programs examples of the impact of human activities on soils, flora and fauna, the biosphere as a whole.

Deforestation in the Amazon will reduce crops

expansion of agricultural land by reducing rainforest will lead to climate change in the region and adversely affect soybean and fodder crops. Brazilian researchers predict a situation that could develop by 2050, when a doubling of the area under crops will lead to a 30% reduction in yield.

In the Amazon jungle 2+2 is not necessary 4. The expansion of agricultural land and pastures will lead to a reduction in agricultural and livestock production. This apparent paradox is caused by climate change brought about by deforestation. The study shows that in addition to reducing the capacity of the Amazon to absorb carbon dioxide, under all possible scenarios, land where forests are cleared will produce less soybeans and fodder crops. Only reforestation can increase yields, which is unlikely. Amazonia Legal is a territorial-administrative unit created by the Brazilian government. It includes nine states of the country, wholly or partially located in the Amazonian selva. This is about 5 million square kilometers, or almost 60% of the territory of Brazil. Such dimensions are aimed at solving three important tasks: regulation of the global climate, the absorption of carbon dioxide and - already at the regional level - the land and its use are fundamental to the future of Brazil. That is, the progressive development of Brazil to a large extent depends on the state of the selva.

To understand what the future holds for us, researchers from several universities in Brazil and the United States built a model of the interaction between climate and land use. Taking the year 2050 as a starting point, they proposed the following three scenarios: deforestation stops; continues under new Brazilian environmental laws; or, as suggested by the leadership of the agro-industrial complex, the selva must disappear for the sake of the prosperity of agricultural and livestock in Brazil. For each of the scenarios, they developed productivity models for both primary forest and pasture and soybean crops, assuming that it will remain the country's main crop for the next 40 years. It would seem that everything is logical: the more hectares occupied by pastures or crops, the higher the volume of agricultural and livestock production. But the logic of man and the logic of climate obey different laws.

Journey through the Amazon

“We hoped to see some kind of compensation, but to our surprise, the increase in logging areas can lead to a deadlock, when the inability to solve environmental problems caused by the destruction of forests will not be compensated by the growth of agricultural production,” says Professor Leidimere Oliveira, who works at the Federal University of La pampa. On the contrary, under almost all scenarios, both carbon dioxide absorption and labor productivity will decline by the middle of the century, no matter what efforts are made.

16. Using additional literature, find out the reasons why the number of elephants in Africa is declining. Prepare a message on the topic "Conservation of African Elephants".

African Elephant Conservation

The population of African elephants has reached a critical point - every year more elephants die on the continent than are born.

A group of researchers published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (the official journal of the US National Academy of Sciences), according to which, since 2010, about 35,000 elephants have died in Africa at the hands of poachers. Scientists warn that if this trend continues, elephants will disappear as a species in 100 years.

Behind last years ivory trade has skyrocketed, and a kilogram of elephant tusks is now worth thousands of dollars on the black market. Demand for them is growing mainly due to Asian countries. Biologists have long pointed to the threat of extinction of elephants as a species, but this study provides a detailed assessment of the environmental and biological disaster taking place in Africa.

The scientists concluded that between 2010 and 2013, Africa lost an average of 7% of its elephant population every year. natural increase The elephant population is about 5%, which means that elephants are getting smaller every year. Over the past 10 years, the number of elephants in the countries of central Africa has decreased by 60%. Poachers tend to kill the most mature and largest elephants. This means that first of all, large males at the peak of their ability to reproduce, as well as females at the head of the family and having cubs, die. After them, only immature young elephants remain in the population, which leads to violations in the hierarchy of the population and harms its growth, says the professor.

To protect African elephants, protected areas and reserves are being created, and poaching is being combated. In 1989, the African elephant was protected by a complete ban on the sale of ivory, included in the International Convention on Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. However, some countries, and in particular Zimbabwe, Botswana, Malawi, Zambia and South Africa, refused to introduce this ban at home. The governments of these countries justified their actions by the fact that elephant populations on their territory are successfully regulated, have a good sex and age structure, and in some places even show a growth trend that requires controlled shooting to maintain natural balance. These sustainable herds not only attract tourists, but also generate income through the trade in ivory, meat and skins, which go to various social and economic development projects, while providing people with work. In addition, the local population is actively involved in the protection of animals and helps to combat poaching. Public opinion should lead to a drop in demand for products that kill rare animals, and this will help save them from extinction. The dispute continues. As long as ivory comes from stable populations, it is difficult to demand a ban on its sale.

The plain is one of the main forms of the earth's relief. On the physical map of the world, the plains are marked with three colors: green, yellow and light brown. They occupy about 60% of the entire surface of our planet. The most extensive plains are confined to plates and platforms.

Characteristics of the plains

A plain is a piece of land or seabed that has a slight fluctuation in elevation (up to 200 m) and a slight slope (up to 5º). They are found at different heights, including at the bottom of the oceans.

A distinctive feature of the plains is a clear, open horizon line, straight or wavy, depending on the surface topography.

Another feature is that the plains are the main territories inhabited by people.

Natural areas of the plains

Since the plains occupy a vast territory, almost all natural zones exist on them. For example, tundra, taiga, mixed and broad-leaved forests, steppes and semi-deserts are represented on the East European Plain. Most of the Amazon lowland is occupied by selva, and on the plains of Australia there are semi-deserts and savannahs.

Plain types

In geography, the plains are divided according to several criteria.

1. Altitude distinguish:

. base . The height above sea level does not exceed 200m. A striking example is the West Siberian Plain.

. Exalted - with a height difference from 200 to 500 m above sea level. For example, the Central Russian Plain.

. upland plains , whose level is measured by marks over 500 m. For example, the Iranian Highlands.

. hollows The highest point is below sea level. An example is the Caspian lowland.

Separately, underwater plains are distinguished, which include the bottom of basins, shelves and abyssal areas.

2. By origin plains are:

. accumulative (marine, river and continental) - formed as a result of the influence of rivers, tides and tides. Their surface is covered with alluvial deposits, and in the sea - with marine, river and glacial deposits. From the sea, one can cite as an example the West Siberian lowland, and from the river - the Amazon. Among continental plains, marginal lowlands with a slight slope towards the sea are referred to as accumulative plains.

. Abrasive - formed as a result of the impact of the surf on land. In areas where strong winds prevail, sea waves are frequent, and the coastline is formed from weak rocks, this type of plains is more often formed.

. Structural - the most complex in origin. In place of such plains, mountains once rose. As a result of volcanic activity and earthquakes, the mountains were destroyed. The magma flowing from cracks and splits fettered the surface of the land, like armor, hiding all the unevenness of the relief.

. Lake - formed on the site of dried-up lakes. Such plains are usually small in area and are often bordered by coastal ridges and ledges. An example of a lake plain is Jalanash and Kegen on the territory of Kazakhstan.

3. By type of relief plains are distinguished:

. flat or horizontal - Great Chinese and West Siberian Plains.

. wavy - are formed under the influence of water and water-glacial flows. For example, the Central Russian Upland

. hilly - in the relief there are separate hills, hills, ravines. An example is the East European Plain.

. stepped - are formed under the influence of the internal forces of the Earth. Example - Central Siberian Plateau

. concave - they include the plains of intermountain depressions. For example, the Tsaidam basin.

There are also ridge and ridge plains. But in nature, a mixed type is most often found. For example, the Pribelskaya undulating plain in Bashkortostan.

Plains climate

The climate of the plains is formed depending on its geographical location, the proximity of the ocean, the area of ​​the plain itself, its length from north to south, and the climatic zone. Free movement of cyclones provides a clear change of seasons. Often the plains abound with rivers and lakes, which contribute to the formation of climatic conditions.

The largest plains in the world

Plains are common on all continents, with the exception of Antarctica. In Eurasia, the largest are the East European, West Siberian, Turan, East China plains. In Africa - the East African Plateau, in North America - the Mississippi, Great, Primexican, in South America - the Amazonian lowland (the largest in the world, its area is over 5 million square kilometers) and the Guiana Plateau.

General characteristics of the climate of the East European Plain

The most important characteristic of any territory is its climate.

Definition 1

Climate- the long-term weather regime characteristic of a particular area.

The multi-year weather regime is:

1. The totality of all weather conditions for several decades;
2. Annual change of conditions and possible deviations in some years;
3. Weather combinations such as droughts, rainy periods, cold snaps, etc.

The position of the East European Plain in temperate and high latitudes, proximity to the waters of the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, as well as connecting the territory with Western Europe and North Asia, have a great influence on its climate.

Seasonal differences in parish solar radiation in these latitudes are especially large, so its distribution over the territory by season changes dramatically. More than $60% of solar radiation coming in winter is reflected by snow cover. During the winter, except for the southern regions, the radiation balance throughout the plain is negative. In summer, the radiation balance becomes positive. Its greatest value is typical for the south of Ukraine, the Crimea and the Sea of ​​Azov. In the direction from north to south, the amount of total solar radiation increases from $66$-$130$ kcal/cm2 per year. The Kaliningrad-Moscow-Perm latitude receives about $1 kcal per square centimeter in winter, and the southeast of the Caspian lowland receives about $3 kcal per square centimeter.

The western transport dominates over the plain throughout the year. air masses. In summer, air from the Atlantic brings precipitation and coolness, and in winter, on the contrary, precipitation and warmth. Moving from west to east, he is being transformed- in summer it becomes drier and warmer, and in winter it becomes colder.

The invasion of cold air is associated with the arrival on the plain cyclones from the northern Atlantic and southwestern Arctic. Arctic air freely enters the entire surface. The activity of cyclones, starting from April and throughout the warm period, shifts to the north, flowing along the lines of the Arctic and Polar fronts. The weather brought by cyclones becomes the most typical for the northwest of the East European Plain. The sea air of temperate latitudes, which comes to these areas from the Atlantic, not only lowers the air temperature, but also heats up from the underlying surface, being additionally saturated with moisture. Cyclones are capable of transporting cold Arctic air to southern latitudes, causing cooling there, sometimes with frosts. Moist warm tropical air invades the plains with southwestern cyclones and can penetrate into the forest zone.

In the southeast, the plains, conditioned by the influence Asian high, are often repeated anticyclones, due to which the invasion of cold continental air masses of temperate latitudes occurs. As a result, in cloudy weather, there is radiative cooling, a decrease in air temperature and the formation of a small but stable snow cover.

In the northern half of the plain January isotherms have a submeridional position. In the Kaliningrad region, the January temperature is $4$ degrees, and in the north-east of the plain it is already -$20$ degrees. In the lower reaches of the Volga and Don, the January isotherm is -$5$, -$6$ degrees.

Distribution July isotherms due to solar radiation, so the July isotherms are arranged in accordance with the geographic latitude. In the extreme north of the plain, the average July temperature is +$8$ degrees, and in the Caspian lowland +$24$ degrees.

Precipitation The plains are unevenly distributed over the territory and depend on the circulation of air masses, the activity of cyclones, and the position of the Arctic and Polar fronts. The Valdai and Smolensk-Moscow Uplands receive the most precipitation. Their annual sum reaches $700-$800 mm. To the east, the amount of precipitation is reduced to $600$-$700$ mm. In the south of the plain, the largest amount of precipitation occurs in the month of June, and in the middle lane, precipitation mainly falls in July. Winter precipitation is represented by snow, the height of which in the northeast reaches $60$-$70$ cm, and in the south only $10$-$20$ cm. The terrain has a great influence on the climate of the plain.

Climatic features of the natural zones of the plain

Natural zones are clearly defined within the East European Plain:

1. Tundra and forest tundra;
2. Forest zone;
3. Forest-steppe and steppe;
4. Semi-desert and desert.

Tundra and forest tundra lie in the subarctic climate zone, it is humid and moderately cold. The tundra and forest tundra of the European coast of Russia are warmer than the Asian tundra. The reason is the influence of the warm North Atlantic Current entering the Barents Sea. Winter temperature varies from west to east of the coast from -$10$ to -$20$ degrees. The amount of precipitation also decreases from west to east - from $600$ mm to $500$ mm.

Forest natural zone within the East European Plain, moderately warm and excessively humid to moderately humid. More precipitation will fall in the European taiga than in the taiga of Western Siberia. The elevated surface receives up to $800$ mm, and the flat areas up to $600$ mm. Precipitation falls by $200$ mm more than evaporates, so the natural zone has excessive moisture. The climate of the forest zone changes from north to south - moisture remains, and the sum of active temperatures increases from $1200 degrees in the north to $2400 degrees in the south. In the zone of broad-leaved forests, the sum of active temperatures increases to $2800$ degrees, and the moisture coefficient approaches unity.

Forest-steppe and steppe zone. Forest-steppes are moderately humid and moderately warm. Winters are usually cold and snowy, while summers can be not only warm, but even hot. There is little rainfall, so droughts are frequent. In the steppes there is not enough moisture and a lot of heat. July temperature is +$21$, +$23$ degrees. The sum of active temperatures is $3200$ degrees. Winter in the western and eastern parts of the steppe has differences - the western part of the steppe zone is warm, the eastern part is cooler, and even cold in winter. Moisture evaporates $200$-$400$ mm more than it falls, so the moisture is insufficient.

Semi-deserts and deserts within the East European Plain, moderately dry and very warm. They occupy the lower reaches of the Volga and stretch to Aktobe. Precipitation falls by $300$-$400$ mm, and evaporation exceeds them by $400$-$700$ mm. Winter is rather cool with negative temperatures ranging from -$7$ degrees in the southwest to -$15$ degrees in the northeast. There is snow cover.

Remark 1

The territory of the East European Plain is located in two climatic zones - subarctic and temperate. From west to east of the plain, continentality increases, which is associated with the gradual removal of the eastern part of the plain from the Atlantic and its softening influence.

Weather phenomena related to climate

The result of atmospheric circulation disturbances are weather phenomena, which, in their socio-economic orientation, are dangerous. They form numerous varieties.

There are two groups of hazardous phenomena that are characterized by increased frequency:

1. Convective - precipitation, hail, squalls, tornadoes, landslides, mudflows;
2. Barogradient phenomena are strong winds.

Both phenomena cause the rise of water in natural sources. Among these dangerous phenomena, northeast winds are catastrophic, causing great damage to the economy. Small wind speeds are known to reduce heat sensations. Such a wind, for example, which in the south of Russia is called boron, very dangerous. Bora is a northern, cold, strong and gusty wind. In the case when a hill is encountered in the path of cold air, a bora occurs. Overcoming this hill, cold air rushes down the leeward slope at high speed, crashing down on the coast with a squall. At the tops of the mountains, before the birth of the bora, thick clouds form, and the wind itself is unstable, changing direction and strength. Having gained strength and determined a stable direction, it moves at a speed of $40$-$60$ m/s. Winds of this type on the East European Plain are especially strong in the Novorossiysk and Gelendzhik bays, on the island of Novaya Zemlya. The wind can freeze and sink ships.