The domestic horse is an artiodactyl animal domesticated by man. Horses are not just used for economic purposes. Today, odd-toed ungulates are raised to participate in horse races, serve in the police, and entertain children. In areas with difficult terrain, where no car can pass, the horse is indispensable. A novice in the content of mammals should know that the diet, exercise, cleaning depends on how many years the animal will live.

What are the types of horses?

Types of horses are divided depending on the degree of hairline, color, the presence of "chestnuts" on the legs.

Allocate subgenera:

• Horse. Domestic horse, Przewalski's horse, tarpan.

• Donkey. The African has a light muzzle and a mane without bangs. Ears, like other representatives, are long. There is a pronounced brush at the tip of the tail. The limbs are striped below. The height of an adult individual is not more than 4 m. Currently, there are no more than 490 free-living representatives of the species. The domestic donkey was domesticated a little earlier than horses. For the first time it was tamed in Egypt. Animals are able to eat absolutely any plant food. Sometimes they use ropes and paper. They especially love thistles. Animals do not need additional feeding, they can get everything they need on the pasture. Donkeys are unpretentious animals that tolerate heat well. They do not need a specific shelter, a canopy is enough. Donkeys are able to work 9 hours a day. If necessary, they can carry a weight exceeding their own. Other representatives of the species are kiang, kulan, onager.

• Tiger horse. Quagga is an extinct species of zebra and the first animal tamed by man. Used to protect livestock. The man was appreciated by her ability to instantly determine the proximity of an enemy and sound an alarm. The head and neck of the odd-toed ungulate were painted in a brown stripe, and the rump had a solid color. Zebra Grevy is able to make sounds similar to a donkey. You can meet an animal only in small areas in Africa. Champan and mountain horses are also representatives of tiger horses.

People often use the unique ability of two representatives of different contracts to produce viable offspring.

Mating a donkey with a horse produces a mule, a hardy but incapable animal. It is used in rural areas when performing heavy work and for the transport of goods. Males of this species are always sterile. Females, in some cases, are able to cover themselves.
Horse - description and external characteristics
The animal is strong, graceful, slender. It has a well-developed muscle mass. The body is rounded, the legs are slender and long. On the wrists are located "chestnuts" - keratinized calloused bumps. The head is elongated, large. The brain is small, however, this does not affect the mental abilities of the animal. On the head is a pair of movable pointed ears. On the muzzle are large nostrils and eyes.

The body is covered with hairs, the length of which varies depending on the location: on the body they are stiff and short, they serve for protection, on the tail and mane they are silky and long. The color of the animal determines the suit. As the equine grows older, it can change significantly.

Weight categories of horses

• The largest is the lungs. Weight of animals up to 400 kg. The lightest breeds are ponies.
• Medium-heavy - 410-610 kg. These include light-duty horses.
• Heavy - weight exceeds 600 kg. Representatives of the Shire breed reach a mass of 1390 kg.

Fatness levels:

• exhibition ones have a shiny coat and attractive rounded shapes;
• factory well-fed, which gives them the opportunity to bear offspring;
• workers do not have a large amount of body fat;
• ill-fed animals are the result of poor-quality maintenance and exhausting work. Also, low weight indicates the presence of diseases.

How long does a horse live?

The average life expectancy of equids is 39 years. However, not all horses reach this age. The number of years lived is influenced by the way of life of animals. Breeding individuals are able to live up to 26 years, horses participating in sports competitions, about 19, ponies 37.

In nature, odd-toed ungulates rarely reach the peak of their maturity. This is due to the lack of the necessary food supply, care and treatment. On average, animals live up to 16 years.

Horse breeds

Odd-toed ungulates have served man since ancient times. Today there are many types of animals that are characterized by features of character, health, physical strength.

The main breeds of horses:

• Factory. It is subdivided into trotting, heavy, riding species.

The Trakehner horse was created for use in the army. But attractive appearance allowed her to take her rightful place among the traveling horses. The Trakehner horse is a hardy strong animal. These qualities made it possible to use it in agriculture. Today the animal participates in competitions. Experts believe that the Trakehner horse is ideal for carriage racing, riding, and sledding. The animal has a good disposition and courage. The Trakehner horse is good in any field.

The Arabian horse stands out outwardly among its relatives. Living in the desert greatly affected her appearance. The body of the equid is dry, small in size, light. The eyes are large and expressive. The head is small. The Arabian horse raises its tail high while running. Features are present not only in the appearance of the animal, but also in its structure. The horse has not 18, but 17 ribs, the tail and lumbar vertebrae are also smaller. The Arabian horse is distinguished by high fertility and good health. The most common in a mammal is the gray color of the body. After some time, mottling is clearly manifested on it. The Arabian horse of roan color is much less common. Sometimes animals have a red, bay and white body color. Arabian horse of silver-bay and black color is a rarity. Specialists distinguish the following types of animals: habdan, siglavi, coheilan. Today, the Arabian horse is used in equestrian sports, like other riding breeds of horses.

Akhal-Teke is a breed of horses descended from the horses of the nomads of Central Asia. Animals are distinguished by a dry physique, high growth. Some experts argue that the Akhal-Teke horse is the ancestor of Arabian horses. The appearance of modern animals has remained the same as centuries ago. The Akhal-Teke horse has a lean body without fat deposits, a shiny coat. The animal has very sparse hairline.

Some foals are born hairless. From hypothermia, they die soon.

The Akhal-Teke horse, despite its graceful physique, is very hardy. It is able to do without water and food for a long period, endure heat and long hikes. The Akhal-Teke horse is sensitive to cold. Her gallop is high and smooth. Such movements helped the ancestors of the animal to move along quicksand. The Akhal-Teke horse is very attached to humans. Also, the animal is very independent. If the rider cannot establish contact with him, then the horse will only do what he wants to do. The Akhal-Teke horse used to be used during hunting or war. The animal was not harnessed to the harness.

Frieze is a heritage of the Netherlands. One of the most majestic breeds. The Friesian horse is known for its friendliness and intelligence. Black deep color, beautiful proportions, magnificent hairline won not a single heart. Today, the Friesian horse is used mainly in circus performances and sports competitions. More recently, the breed was threatened with complete extinction. In the 20th century, people valued practicality and strength in animals. Grace and royalty to become a frieze horse was not in demand. Thanks to the efforts of a small group of people and a well-designed livestock restoration program, it was possible to avoid the complete disappearance of these animals. Later, the royal family took control of this breed. Today, the Friesian horse is rightfully considered the pride of the country in which it was bred.

Animal heavy trucks were used by knights in the Middle Ages. Ordinary odd-toed ungulates could not carry too much weight, so there was a need for a breed that could not only handle the weight of a rider in armor, but also gallop at the same time. Thanks to medieval heavy trucks, such modern breeds as Shires, Brabancons, Percherons appeared.

• transitional. This group includes the Kabardian, Budenov, Don horse. These animals are versatile. They are widely used both in the economy and in sports. The Don horse was bred by the Cossacks. Differs in beauty and high growth.

• Local. It is classified into mountain, steppe, northern forest.

Animals are distinguished by a variety of colors and small sizes. Odd-toed ungulates are able to endure severe climatic conditions and poor nutrition. Their character is energetic and lively.

The Mongolian horse is a stocky, sturdy animal with a brownish body color. In winter, the density of wool increases significantly. This saves the animal from hypothermia. The Mongolian horse is a faithful assistant to nomads. The odd-toed ungulate gives milk and meat, helps to overcome considerable distances. Under the saddle, the Mongolian horse is able to walk about 79 km daily. Animals are bred in herds on pasture. In winter, the Mongolian horse eats snow to quench its thirst.

The Yakut horse can withstand low temperatures, down to -60⁰С. Thanks to year-round maintenance without a canopy and free mating, a squat, short animal with short legs was formed.

The Yakut horse, with good feeding, significantly exceeds the average for the breed.

The Yakut horse has a massive head, thick hair, strong hooves. The color of the body is mousey, savrasy or gray. It lives in an extremely difficult climate for other animals. Therefore, it is problematic to improve its pedigree qualities by crossing with other breeds. Mating takes place between individuals of the same species. The Yakut horse eats only pasture, is kept in a herd.

The Bashkir breed of horses was formed for a long period. Animals have features of both steppe and forest equids. The Bashkir horse has undergone a number of evolutionary changes during its existence. The habitat of mammals today is mountain-steppe. The Bashkir horse is bony, small in size. It is used in agriculture, under the saddle, to obtain meat and milk.

Thanks to interbreeding and good nutrition, it was possible to obtain an improved type of horse. The Bashkir horse is distinguished by great strength and endurance.

wild horses

The Przewalski's horse lives in semi-deserts and steppes. The diet is based on cereals: fescue, feather grass, wheatgrass. Odd-hoofed animals could find enough food only in oases. That is why the animals led a nomadic life, gathering in a herd. It included a stallion and several females with foals. The grown up young animals were separated from the group and gathered in bachelor herds.

Przewalski's horse has a reddish coat color. This coloration allows her to camouflage well on the ground. To enhance the effect of merging with the territory allows a narrow dark longitudinal strip along the back.

The height of the animal does not exceed 149 cm, and the length is 2.6 m. How much does a horse weigh? Weight reaches 290 kg. The head of an artiodactyl is large, lighter than the body. Sometimes its color is white, the same as that of the abdomen. The Przewalski's horse has a good sense of smell and fine hearing, allowing you to notice the enemy from a distance.

The life expectancy of an animal fluctuates around 24 years. Mares become sexually mature by 4 years, males by 5. The mating period takes place in the spring. Pregnancy lasts 11 months. The female feeds her foal with milk throughout the year.

At night or in case of danger, the young are collected inside the circle formed by the mares. Females become the back of the body to the enemy.

The Przewalski's horse is not a direct ancestor of the domestic horse. Przewalski's horse is extremely difficult to adapt to captivity. She is almost impossible to tame. When scientists faced the question of saving the species, it was decided to place the animals in zoos. Przewalski's horse was hard to catch. Caught animals died in large numbers, refusing food. Today, natural, carefully protected habitat conditions have been created for these equids.

The Przewalski's horse is protected by the Convention regulating the trade in rare species. It is also listed in the International Red Book.

Another representative of wild horses is the mustang. He lives in America. Researchers believe that the animal is a feral descendant of Spanish horses. The number of mustang horses is declining today. Life expectancy - 29 years.

Horse nutrition

The food base of animals depends on the living conditions.

In the wild, the basis of the diet is:

• herbs;
• other vegetation.

In warm weather, animals feed on fresh herbs, in cold weather - on plants hidden under the snow.

The variety of food eaten depends entirely on the conditions of existence. In a harsh climate, equids eat not only grasses, but also young branches, leaves, and bark. In the southern territories, rich in greenery, it is much easier for animals to find the necessary food.

The main food of horses is hay and pasture. They must be clean, without signs of damage.

Overfeeding alfalfa hay can cause diarrhea in animals. It contains more protein than other types of plant-based grass feeds.

The concentrate is an important product necessary for pregnant, young, and active equids. The best in this group of products are beets, barley and oats. In addition, good results are obtained by using a mixture of molasses with grain.

The horse should receive up to 49 liters of water daily. It must be available to the animal at any time. It should be kept clean.

Animals tend to overeat. You need to feed them often and in small portions.

Horse suits

As the animal matures, its coat color changes. There are several types of suit:

• The black horse is an animal painted completely black. His hooves may be with points of a paler shade, or charcoal. This color range is carried by the dominant gene. Therefore, in 69% of cases, it is transmitted to young animals. An exclusively black black horse is extremely rare. Akhal-Teke horses are characterized by the absence of wool burning under the rays of the sun. Foals of this breed are born with a bluish or smoky coat. During molting, the black horse loses its bright black hue, acquiring a brown color.
• The intensity of the shade of red horses varies. Most often, the color of the hair matches the shade of the coat. A red horse will never have black legs.
• Nightingale suit, what shade is this? The main features of animals: white shade of hair, brown or amber eyes. The nightingale is extremely rare and highly prized.
• The buckskin horse has a sandy body, black legs, mane and tail. In rare cases, the limbs are only half dark. The buckskin horse has beautiful brown eyes.
• What color is a bay horse? The gene that affects the appearance of brown in the exterior appears in a large number of horses. Therefore, this shade is considered to be the base for wild animals. The bay horse in its classic form has black limbs, hairline and the tip of the muzzle. The chestnut suit is dominated by walnut colors. The animal looks incredibly beautiful in the rays of the sun. A bay horse of a cherry color is a rare occurrence. These animals are of particular interest to breeders.
• Brown color is often found in wild and zonal equids. The brown horse arose due to the effect of the DUN gene on the pigment. It has a simultaneous effect on red and black, but not all of the coat is lightened. The tail, limbs and mane remain dark. The brown horse is able to disguise itself in almost any terrain.
• The unusual appearance of skewbald horses gave rise to many legends around them. Many believe that only Overo horses can have blue eyes. It's a delusion. Any piebald horse has this shade. The color of the iris does not affect the quality of vision in any way. However, many animals are particularly sensitive to sunlight. The piebald horse has shaded spots on its body. This is a visual deception. It occurs due to the translucence of the dark skin through the light hairline. A piebald horse can be of any color. There are apricot, silver, isabella, champagne individuals.

horse breeding process

It completely depends on the lifestyle of equids.

In the wild, mating begins in spring and ends in mid-summer. The herd consists of a stallion and a dozen mares, among which is the main female. It is she who leads the rest of the individuals. The main task of the stallion is to protect the herd and cover the females.

As soon as the mares are ready to mate, they signal to the stallion:

• squeal softly;
• place the hind limbs;
• lower the head to the bottom;
• lift the tail
• secrete an odorous liquid that attracts males.

On the farm

On farms, mating proceeds differently. For the farmer, the main task is to improve the breed. Therefore, a person carefully selects pairs, chooses a method of fertilization.

• Artificial insemination. The breeder collects his own semen. After quality analysis, it is frozen. With the help of tools, sperm is injected into the mare. The method is used when a thoroughbred stallion is far from females.
• Cooking. In the pen, several pre-selected mares and a stallion are isolated. After mating, they are released to the herd.
• Manual. The most common method. Conception occurs in 96% of cases. The offspring are distinguished by high characteristics in health and appearance. Horseshoes are removed from the mare, a harness is put on, and the tail is bandaged. They are brought into the room and introduced to the stallion. Mating occurs naturally.
• Kosyachny. Females are divided into shoals, consisting of 24 individuals. A male is launched to them for the period of estrus. The probability of fertilization is 100%.

The stallion is carefully chosen. They evaluate genetics, appearance, thoroughbred data, endurance, temperament.

For mating, mares are chosen that are slightly larger than stallions.

Pregnancy in mares lasts 11 months. During childbirth, the animal is laid on its side. Extraneous presence at this time is undesirable. However, if the animal is very attached to the owner, then he should be nearby. The duration of the process is about 30 minutes.

Basically, one foal is born. An hour later he is on his feet.

During the warm period, the horses are kept outside, in the cold - under the roof. The barn is designed for two individuals, the stables are necessary with a large livestock.

Caring for a horse is the key to its long and fulfilling life. Basic Rules:

• The hair is combed daily with a plastic comb. In the morning, wipe the nostrils and eyes with a moistened sponge. Wool brushed. In the warm season, daily bathing is required.
• Food is served 3 times a day. Various supplements are included in the main diet. Food never changes abruptly. Animals have very delicate digestive systems. Odd-toed ungulates should always have access to clean water at room temperature.
• The stables are cleaned daily. In summer, it must be ventilated, and in the cold, heated.
• Constant stay in a cramped room negatively affects the musculoskeletal system. Animals need to be walked daily.

Hooves need careful care. The blacksmith is obliged to adjust the horseshoe before installation. It is absolutely impossible to apply it in a hot form. Shoe nails are selected individually. An incorrectly chosen size can lead to an inflammatory process or even death of the animal. Horseshoes are changed every six months.

Horses have many unusual features. Their nature and character, upon closer examination, surprise. The horse and man side by side existed for a long time, but still some of the possibilities of animals make one wonder.

• They have an amazing memory for smells. It is not uncommon for horses to return home or look for a lost owner.
• Horses have a good memory for hurts caused to them.
• Odd-toed ungulates understand cause-and-effect relationships, thanks to which they successfully remember various actions and are able to repeat them at the request of a person.
• The viewing angle in animals is maximum. Thanks to him, horses are difficult to take by surprise. Their vision is colored, however, the blue and red shades of the horse do not differ.
• Horses have developed ear for music. Odd-toed ungulates even have their favorite compositions. Animals can amplify the volume of the sound they hear. This feature is unique among representatives of the fauna.
• Their bones are twice as strong as granite. If a fracture occurs, it is very difficult and takes a long time to grow together.
• Horsehair was once used to make a bowstring. Today it is used for the manufacture of grinding shafts, brushes, brushes, fishing lines, bows.
• Hoof - keratinized skin with high sensitivity. It contains many nerve endings and blood vessels.
• A person who is constantly in contact with horses rarely encounters fatigue, depression, colds, diabetes, diseases of the spine and respiratory tract.
• Pony horses have a positive effect on the emotional background of children. Hippotherapy can significantly improve the health of people with problems in the musculoskeletal system.
• In some countries, the role of a guide for the blind is performed by a mini horse. The pony is pre-tested.
• The pygmy horse is a recently bred breed. The size of the animal at the withers does not exceed 96 cm.
• A horse usually lives for about 29 years, but there are also centenarians. A horse named Billy lived to be 62 years old. Until his death, he towed barges.

Horses are amazing animals. A rare person will not appreciate the beauty and grace of horses. The close relationship between equids and humans imposes responsibility on the latter. How many years the horse will live and how full its existence will be, depends entirely on people.

Wild relatives of horses. In addition to our domesticated one-hoofed animals - horses, donkeys and their wild ancestral forms still preserved in nature - their close relatives were more than two dozen species similar to them both in general body structure, and in the structure of the dental apparatus, and, most importantly, in structure their one-toed limbs. The species of this group live in the deserts and semi-deserts of Asia and in the African savannahs and feed there, depending on the season, and fresh
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and dried up grassy vegetation.
One of these wild species is also part of the fauna of the USSR. This is a kulan, currently preserved only in the very south of Turkmenistan, in the adjacent regions of Iran, in Afghanistan and China. In former times * - in the 18th century - kulans were widespread in the lowlands of Central Asia and Kazakhstan, but in the last century they were exterminated here. The same fate threatens the Turkmen kulans, but now hunting for them is prohibited in our country.
The kulan is a slender and swift-footed animal. It is distinguished from the wild horse by its longer, mule-like ears (hence its scientific name, Hemionus, which in Greek means half donkey); the color of the coat, like that of so many other desert animals, is yellowish, gray, undoubtedly having a protective value.
A special group, distinguished by zoologists as a subgenus, consists of more than a dozen species of tiger horses, of which the South African zebra can be most often found in zoos (Fig. 459). At a close distance, the striped coloring of tiger horses is striking, but at a distance (as these sensitive and cautious animals usually keep), it hides the bulk of their bodies, making them blend with the general background of the savanna landscape. Apparently, this type of coloration is of ancient origin,

traces of it (in the form of dark stripes on the legs) are found in some forms of other species of the horse family.
Brindle horses easily interbreed with other species of the same family, which indicates a close relationship of all these forms.
The origin of the one-toed limb of the horse. Single-toed limbs sharply distinguish modern horses from all other living ungulates, and zoologists of the first half of the last century contrasted the group of “one-hoofed” not only with “two-hoofed” (i.e., ruminant), in which the reduction in the number of fingers took place in a different way, but also with everything else ungulates - that combined group of "multi-hoofed", which included elephants, and pigs, and hippos, and rhinoceroses. However, a careful examination of the skeleton of a single-toed limb of a horse, and its comparison with the structure of the corresponding parts in a number of fossil ungulates of the Tertiary period, allows not only to establish a close connection between horses and other equids, but also to trace their genealogical history step by step.
The skeletal structure of the horse's leg. Features in the structure of the skeleton of the limbs of the horse are clearly visible when considering their extreme (distal) sections - the metacarpus and foot. On the skeleton of the limb, we see that, although the horse has only one finger fully developed, which in its position corresponds to our middle one and which takes on the support of the entire limb, on the sides of each metacarpal and each tarsal bone there are also so-called slate bones in the form of thin pointed sticks, which no longer have any significance for the functioning of the limbs. These useless rudiments indicate that the one-toed limbs of the horse originated by changing the former three-toed limbs, similar to those of other equids (Fig. 460).
Phenacod. In early Tertiary times, both Europe and North America were inhabited by animals that, in their structure, were undoubtedly close to the common ancestors of all equids, but, unlike all later species of this group, still had a full number of fingers on their limbs. These were phenakod (Fig. 461) - four-legged medium-sized (body length up to 1.5 le), with a long tail, a flexible body, a small head with a small and flat cranium and with jaws armed with a full set of teeth (44), suitable for processing both plant and animal food and ancient carnivores (creodonts) that differed little from the dental apparatus. Their body was supported by low five-fingered limbs,
leaning only on three middle fingers, and the middle one (III) was longer than the others and, judging by its shape, was dressed with a hoof.
Using the example of the phenacode, we see that with the transfer of body support to more developed middle fingers, the extreme lateral tales (I and V) lose their functional significance and therefore can be completely lost in the future without harm to the animal.
Schematically, we can reproduce this process if we first lean on the table with our entire five-fingered palm, and then we begin to transfer support at first only to the lower surface of the fingers and finally we will lean only on the very ends of the fingers (Fig. 462). We will see how, in this case, the extreme lateral fingers I and V, and then II and IV, will remain without dividing, and all support will fall, like in a single-hoofed horse, on the share of only the middle finger.
Successive stages of development of the horse series. Phenacodus gives us a clear idea of ​​the most ancient type of structure of odd-toed hoofed tetrapods, but he himself is not among the direct ancestors of the equine series, since at the same time forms with lost lateral fingers already existed on Earth - the direct predecessors of the later one-hoofed animals.

The most ancient member of this series can be considered the early Tretian Eohippus. It was a small animal the size of a fox, having 4 fingers on the front legs and 3 on the hind legs; when walking, his side fingers had to touch the ground. After eogiiius there are several forms with three-fingered limbs (the fourth finger has already been lost). Then a larger three-toed form appears - monohippus, in which the middle finger is much more developed, and the lateral ones no longer come into contact with the smooth surface of the earth. The next members of the series are even larger animals, in which the lateral fingers become clearly useless rudiments, although they remain visible from the outside. Finally, the Upper Tertiary Pliohyppus turns out to be already a one-hoofed animal, relatively close to modern species of the horse family - the largest representatives of this series.
In parallel with the underdevelopment of the lateral fingers and the increase in body size in members of the equine series, a change in the dental apparatus also took place. In the most ancient forms, the molars were tuberculate, in modern horses they have a flat chewing surface and a folded structure, and the intermediate members of the series give different lines between these two extreme types. /> What was the reason for the direction of the process, which with such a steady sequence was expressed in the gradual transitions from small polydactyl eohippus to modern long-legged one-hoofed horses, from multi-tubercular molars to cylindrical teeth capable of grinding dry hay and hard grain fodder?

This question was brilliantly resolved back in the 70s of the last century in the works of the brilliant Russian paleontologist Vladimir Onufrievich Kovalevsky.
More ancient animals in the series of ancestors of the horse series were not steppe. Both by their structure and by the nature of the deposits in which their remains were found, it is clear that they lived in a warm and humid climate and ate juicy plant food (recall the similar tuberculate teeth of our pigs and their food). With their small size among dense vegetation, these animals did not need the speed and tirelessness of running, which are necessary for the inhabitants of open spaces - modern wild one-hoofed animals, deprived of the opportunity to hide in a hole and in dense thickets. Under these conditions, relatively short three-toed or four-toed legs fully satisfied the needs of the animal, especially since, if necessary, it could speed up its run, moving in leaps by means of flexion and extension of its body (recall the movements of a cat).
The geological changes that occurred in the middle of the Tertiary period and were accompanied by the rise of high mountain ranges, caused a change in climatic conditions over large expanses of land, and at the same time a change in vegetation cover. In countries that were separated from the seas by high mountain ranges, the climate became more continental and the forest vegetation was replaced by grassy steppes.
Under these conditions, for large ungulates, the path to developing the ability to dig holes and hide in them from danger, as rodents and small predators do, was already cut off, and a quick run remained for them the only means of salvation. But with large body sizes, the flexibility of the spine is already lost, which allows small quadrupeds to move in jumps, and the speed of movement begins to depend only on the legs. Under these new conditions, animals with longer legs and with the smallest possible support surface, that is, a reduced number of fingers, gained a vital advantage (after all, it is not for nothing that the gastropod mollusk, the snail, serves as the personification of slowness for us, and it is not without reason that we ourselves, leaning on the entire foot when walking, when running, be sure to rise on your fingertips).
With the transition to life in the steppes, the nature of the nutrition of ungulates also changed: herbivorous animals with tuberculate teeth, under the inexorable action of natural selection, gradually degenerated into herbivorous animals with folded teeth and capable of eating vegetation even after it was scorched by the sun and dried up on the vine.
Thus, on the basis of authentic paleontological documents, it was possible not only to establish the phylogenetic series of the horse family, but also to find out the reasons why the development of this group went in that particular direction.
The classical works of V. O. Kovalevsky on the study of extinct ungulates laid the foundation for the ecological direction in paleontology, which sees in fossil remains not only dead bones, but also parts of living organisms that acted at one time, the structure of which corresponded to the conditions of their existence and their way of life.


Rice. 463. Arrangement of links * nev front konechioster. horses, giving them sufficient stability and at the same time limiting their mobility by pendulum-like movements in the same plane when walking and running (front view; diagram).

If you happen to see the complete skeleton of a horse, you may notice that the adaptation of the limbs to long and fast running SH9 is limited to the loss of the lateral vals*, * is also expressed in the simplification of the structure of the forearm (Fig. 4G3) and lower leg: the lotus bone has grown together with
radial, and the fibula turned into a small appendage of the tibia. As a result of all these changes, and in the absence of clavicles, rotational movements in the shoulder joint and turns of its one-toed hand are inaccessible to the horse (note that trained circus horses, having risen on their front legs and bowing to the applause of the audience, cannot make greeting movements with their forelimbs and only sort through them in a vertical plane). But it is precisely this stiffness of movements that gives the high legs of the horse the stability and strength necessary for fast running on the hard ground of the open steppes; in the domesticated state, it secured their paramount importance as riding and draft animals for horses.
Ungulate mammals in the wild
The impoverishment of the fauna of ungulates. Of the diversity of the vast group of ungulates in our modern conditions we can directly see and study only our large and small cattle, pigs and horses; in the north and south, reindeer, camel, buffalo and donkey are added to them. As for other artiodactyls and equids, we can only get acquainted with them in zoos or menageries, and only expedition members can be lucky enough to see steppe antelopes or mountain goats and rams in their natural setting.
Things were different in the past*, although still comparatively recent times. Ancient literary monuments testify that the territory of our country abounded with various animals. In its forest zone, in addition to fur-bearing animals, there were a large number of elk, roe deer (wild goats),
deer and two species of wild bulls lived - tour and bison. And in the south, in the steppes of the black earth belt, herds of saiga goats and wild tarpan horses grazed.
With the growth of the population and especially with firearms in his hands, the number of wild animals quickly declined. More than others, various species from the order of artiodactyls suffered from merciless destruction: from them the hunter received both a large meat carcass and good-quality skin. Back in the 16th century, the European bull tour, the ancestor of our livestock, was exterminated. His cousin the bison was ousted from the life arena already before the eyes of the living generation: by the end of the 19th century, the range of the European bison was already limited to the territory of Belovezhskaya Pushcha - a protected forest area at the junction of the borders of present-day Lithuania, Belarus and Poland, where this rare vver was protected as an object for the front door. royal hunt. However, despite the protection, the number of bison in this narrowly limited area was catastrophically reduced, and in 1914 there were only 738 of them. Later, the territory of Belovezhskaya Pushcha was subjected to enemy occupation both during the first imperialist war and during the Second World War, as a result of which the Bialowieza bison were mostly killed, partly

were taken away by the Germans to German zoos. Now purebred descendants of the Bialowieza bison have been preserved and breed annually in the Munich Zoo (Germany), from where part of the offspring was sent to some other zoos in Western Europe. Now we breed bison in Belovezhskaya Pushcha, in the Caucasian and Prioksko-Terrasny reserves.
An even sadder fate befell the Caucasian subspecies of bison, which first became known to science only in 1836, and already in the early 20s of our century - in the period civil war- was completely destroyed by poachers.
Conservation of nature and the revival of endangered species. It seemed that the same sad fate was prepared in the near future for other ungulates, whose numbers were steadily decreasing every year. However, as can be seen from the examples of elk and saiga, timely government measures to protect animals help to restore their numbers and keep them in the future as part of our commercial fauna.
Elk, or (in Siberia) elk (Fig. 464), was subjected to especially intense persecution at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries, since the best suede was made from its skin, for which there was a great demand in those days (white suede leggings were part of the uniform military uniforms). In the Moscow province, the elk was then completely exterminated; it became rare even in distant Transbaikalia. However, after the October Revolution, when elk hunting was banned in the European part of the USSR, their population gradually recovered, and now they sometimes wander even to the outskirts of the capital (for example, to Sokolniki). Now the number of moose is tens of thousands of heads, so they are hunted. In the North, attempts are being made to domesticate the elk, turning it into a draft, pack and riding animal; it is also possible to use the elk as a valuable meat and dairy animal in conditions of its semi-free keeping in the taiga zone.

Rice. 465. Saiga.

Saiga, or saiga (fig. 465), in ancient times was found in huge numbers in the steppe, semi-desert and desert strip from Ukraine to Central Asia. Unlike its relatives - real antelopes - the saiga does not give the impression of a beautiful and graceful animal, and its large hook-nosed head even seems ugly (due to its good instinct, it has a highly developed nasal cavity and movable nostrils protrude forward above the lower jaw).
As a result of merciless extermination at the beginning of our century, the saiga was considered an animal doomed to complete extinction, and the total number of its livestock still preserved at that time, according to zoologists, did not exceed one thousand. In 1919, the saigas were taken under protection, and in the 1950s they had already multiplied so much that it was possible to allow them to be hunted with special permits, and now their meat, like the meat of elk, sometimes appears on store shelves. Thus, thanks to the timely measures taken, it was possible to preserve the saiga in our fauna, and, moreover, not as a “monument of nature”, but as a valuable game animal.
Antler reindeer breeding. On the way to domestication are three Asian deer - maral (Fig. 466) and red deer - the closest relatives of the European noble

Rice. 466. Maral pantach.

reindeer (its geographical species) and the Far Eastern sika deer. Unlike the reindeer, these forms have antlers only on the male. Every year, at the end of winter, the horns are shed, and then new horns begin to grow on their base (rosette), initially dressed in soft velvety skin and richly supplied with blood.
For the sake of such horns, called antlers at this age, industrialists pursued male deer, red deer and spotted deer at the end of spring. The fact is that antlers taken from dead animals, brewed in a salt solution and then dried, found good sales in China, where they were used to make medicines.
Even in the last century, some enterprising Siberians began to tame the captured deer calves and grow them in fenced forest areas in order to get precious antlers from them. When, in connection with the development of the doctrine of hormons, our scientific medicine also assessed the pharmaceutical value of velvet antlers (the medicinal preparation pantokrin is made from them), in Siberia and on Far East Special state farms began to appear for breeding marals and sika deer and collective-farm maral nurseries. At these enterprises, in the corresponding season (in June), antlers are sawn off from living males, without resorting to slaughtering these animals.

Horses are the most progressive and highly specialized odd-toed ungulates in adaptability to fast and long running. They have only one (III) finger on their front and hind limbs; only rudiments (II and IV) in the form of so-called slate bones hidden under the skin have been preserved from the lateral fingers. Teeth - 40-44. The hair is close to the body. On the neck there is a mane, a tail with long hair, forming a brush along the entire tip or at the end.

The natural range of modern horses is limited to the Old World and covers South Africa, South and Central Asia; even in historical times, horses lived in the steppes and forest-steppes of Europe.

Horses appeared in North America, where a significant part of their evolution took place, and only in the Tertiary period did they penetrate the Old World.

ancient ancestor horses eohippus(Eohippus), found in the Lower Eocene of North America, was about the size of a small dog, with four-toed forelimbs and three-toed hind limbs. The molars of Eohippus were low with tubercles on the chewing surface. He lived in subtropical forests and fed on lush vegetation. Larger, the size of a greyhound dog, mesogippus(Mesohippus), found in the Oligocene deposits, already had only three fingers on both limbs, but its lateral fingers still reached the ground, and the crowns of the molars were low, although they had a flat, folded chewing surface. Apparently, he lived in the forest and in his way of life resembled tapirs. The same structure of the hind limbs, but shorter lateral fingers, no longer reaching the ground, and significantly larger body sizes differed protogippus(Protohippus) from the Miocene North Africa And hipporion(Hipporion), widespread in the Miocene of Eurasia (lateral branch of horses).

Subsequent Pliocene and Quaternary horses are already characterized by single-toed limbs and long crowns of molars, the chewing surface of which was flat and covered with complex folds.

In addition to the Tertiary horses mentioned, a great many other fossil species are known from both the western and eastern hemispheres. However, by the end of the Pleistocene in America, horses died out completely and did not live to see a person. Only after the discovery of America by Europeans, the domestic horse was brought to the continent. Runaway and feral horses quickly multiplied into huge herds of mustangs that roamed the steppes of America for several hundred years until they were destroyed.

Modern representatives of the horse family are considered as belonging to the same genus, or genera (or breeds) are distinguished horses, donkeys and zebras.

The quaggas were earthy sandy on top and white on the underside. Only the head, neck and shoulders were in narrow light stripes. They inhabited open steppe plains and savannahs. In the wild, the last quaggas were killed around 1880, and the last quagga in the world died at the Amsterdam Zoo in 1883.

Zebras- relatively small striped horses, have a body length of 2 - 2.4 le, a height at the withers of 1.2-1.4 le, a tail with elongated hair at the end - 45-57 cm. A zebra weighs up to 350 kg. Along the light gray or brownish tone of the body of zebras there are transverse black or black-brown stripes. This coloration, which appears bright in photographs, actually makes zebras less visible, especially in the savannas. Zebras are kept in small herds or singly, rarely forming large clusters. Often they can be seen in mixed herds with wildebeest. Solitary zebras constantly accompany giraffes. Zebras do not run as fast as horses, and they have less endurance. It is possible to tame zebras, although it is rather difficult. Zebras are wild, vicious, they defend themselves from enemies with their teeth and more often with front than hind hooves. Since tamed zebras are significantly inferior to the horse and donkey in terms of their working qualities, experiments on taming them have not been widely used. With a donkey and a horse, zebras give a fruitless mix- zebroids.

In nature, the main enemy of zebras is the lion. The indigenous people of Africa hunted zebras using their meat and skins. The beautiful skin and comparative ease of hunting zebras attracted countless European hunters - amateurs and professionals. As a result, in less than a century, the colonialists killed a huge number of these animals. Some species, like the quagga, disappeared completely, while others became rare or survived only in reserves. Now hunting for some zebras is completely prohibited, others are allowed to be harvested only in a few areas in strictly limited quantities. The skins are used to make expensive souvenirs.

In zoos, zebras breed and easily carry temperate climate. In the Askania-Nova reserve, zebras of all three species graze in the steppe.

mountain zebra(Equus zebra) is much smaller than the others, has long ears and has a breastplate. Black stripes on the rump form a lattice. The general appearance of the mountain zebra is somewhat more donkey-like than that of other zebras. Once this southernmost species was widespread in southern Africa. Now one subspecies of the actual mountain zebra (E. z. zebra) is preserved only in the Mountain Zebra National Park, including about 70 individuals. Another subspecies (E. z. hartmannae) lives in Southwest Africa and Southern Angola in a mountain range that runs parallel to the Namib Desert. The number of this zebra continues to fall, as its pastures are occupied by astrakhan sheep. The total number of mountain zebras does not exceed 1500-2000 animals.

Desert zebra, or Gravy's zebra(E. grevyi), - the largest of the zebras.

The light color of the belly rises quite high on the sides. The stripes are narrow. The hairs that form a brush at the end of the tail are relatively short. Her cry, more than that of other zebras, resembles the cry of a donkey.

The desert zebra is common in the central parts of Eastern Ethiopia, Somalia and Northern Kenya. It lives in deserts and semi-deserts, where it prefers gentle mountain slopes and plateaus; in Kenya sometimes forms mixed herds with savanna or burchell zebra.

Savannah, or Burchellova, zebra(E. burchelli) - the most common and widespread type of zebra, forming 4 subspecies, well distinguished by the number of stripes on the neck and the location of the stripes on the legs.

Actually burchellova zebra (E. b. burchelli), living in the Orange Republic in Bechuana land, exterminated. Chapman's Zebra(E. b. antiquorum), distributed from southern Angola to the Transvaal, has relatively narrow stripes on the body, which, going down the legs, do not reach the hooves. At village zebra(E. b. selousi), living in Zambia, Southern Rhodesia and Mozambique, the legs are striped to the hooves, like the zebra of the northernmost subspecies - Boehme's zebras, or Grant's zebras(E. b. bohme), characterized by a small number of black stripes on the neck and common in South Sudan, South Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and Zambia. The zebra of this species is generally characterized by relatively small ears, the absence of a dewlap, and the fact that the dark stripes on the rump do not form a lattice.

Inhabiting savannas and steppes, Burchell's zebra prefers grass and grass-shrub pastures, especially those located on hills and gentle slopes of low mountains. This zebra does not tolerate waterlessness and in the dry season goes to more humid areas, often in forests, or rises to the mountains, making regular migrations.

Savanna zebras live in permanent family herds, in which there are no more than 9-10 goals. More often in such a herd there are 4-5 animals (Kruge-ra National Park) or 6-7 animals (Ngorongoro National Park). At the head of the herd is a stallion at the age of at least 5 years, the rest are females and young animals. The composition of the family herd is very constant, although when attacked by predators at a watering place or during migrations, it can temporarily disintegrate or unite with other family herds. Members of the family herd get to know each other well even at a considerable distance.

An old experienced female always leads the herd to a watering hole or pasture, followed by foals in order of increasing age, then in the same sequence other females with young ones, and the stallion closes the procession. The places of rest, watering and grazing of the herd are relatively permanent, but they are not protected by the members of the herd from the zebras of other herds. Herds move freely over a large area throughout the year, sharing it with animals from other herds. Surplus adult males form separate herds of bachelors or keep alone.

An old or sick stallion is usually driven out of the family herd by other stallions, which is accompanied by fights. However, fights between adult stallions who lead herds, or between mowing stallions and bachelors, are rare. As a rule, the stallion at the head of the herd breeds only the females of his herd. Single stallions sometimes try to separate the young female from the herd, but even after covering, she again returns to her herd. Young stallions separate from the mother group at the age of one to three years; before this, there is no antagonism between the stallion stallion and young stallions in the herd. Having separated from the herd, the young stallion goes to the bachelor school, since he can stand at the head of the family herd only at the age of 5-6.

The first estrus in mares occurs at the age of 13-15 months, but the stallion breeds females, starting from the age of one and a half years. However, fertilization occurs no earlier than 2.5 years, and for the first time the female brings a foal no earlier than 3.5 years. In the zoo, the male becomes sexually mature at 3 years.

Zebras do not have a specific breeding season, and foals appear in all months of the year, more often during the rainy season. For example, according to studies in the famous Ngorongoro Reserve (Tanzania), in January - March (rainy season) 61% of foals will be born, and in April - September (dry season) - only 14.5%. Pregnancy lasts 361-390, more often 370 days. The foal gets up on its feet already 10-15 minutes after birth, takes its first steps after 20 minutes, travels noticeable distances after another 10-15 minutes, and can jump 45 minutes after birth. Usually, the first days after the appearance of the foal, the female does not let anyone get closer than 3 m to him. The stallion, as a rule, is close to the giving birth mare and, if necessary, protects her. If the newborn is in danger (often from hyenas that roam in search of newborn ungulates), the mother hides with the cub in the herd, and all the zebras take part in protecting the little one, successfully driving out the predator. Usually zebras bring a foal every 2-3 years, but about 15% of them foal annually. Mares are able to foal up to 15-18 years.

wild donkey(Equus asinus) was apparently widespread in the deserts of North Africa in the distant past. This ancestor of the domestic donkey has the typical appearance of a long-eared animal, noticeably smaller than a horse (height at the withers 1.1-1.4 m), with a heavy head, thin-legged, with a small mane reaching only to the ears. The donkey's tail has a brush of elongated hair only at the end. The coloration is grayish-sandy, a dark stripe runs along the back, which at the withers sometimes intersects with the same dark shoulder stripe.

At present, two subspecies of the wild donkey still survive in small numbers, mainly in the hills along the Red Sea coast, in Somalia, Eritrea and Northern Ethiopia.

somali donkey(E. a. somalicus) is slightly larger than the Nubian and darker in color. His legs are covered in dark stripes. Several hundred heads have survived only near the coast of the Gulf of Aden in Somalia and possibly in Ethiopia.

Nubian donkey(E. a. africanus) smaller than the previous one, lighter in color, with a pronounced "dorsal cross"

distributed in Eritrea, Sudan and Northern Ethiopia. A small isolated section of its range lies in the center of the Sahara, on the border of Libya and Nigeria. Perhaps most of the animals observed in last years, - feral domestic animals.

The wild ass is almost completely unexplored. Lives in the desert and semi-desert, where it feeds mainly on grassy and shrubby vegetation. They keep like zebras in family herds, in which about 10 mares and young ones walk under the leadership of a stallion. Very cautious and roams widely.

The domestic donkey, or donkey, in the formation of which, obviously, both subspecies participated, is very variable in color and size. There are white, brown, black donkeys, but more often gray of all shades. They can be smooth-haired, long-haired and curly.

The domestication of the donkey took place somewhere in Upper Egypt and Ethiopia as early as the Upper Neolithic 5-6 thousand years ago. Domestic donkeys appeared before horses and for a long time were the main transport animal. In ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia and Western Asia, they were widely used as riding and pack animals for many millennia. For example, donkeys were used in the construction of the Egyptian pyramids. A very long time ago, donkeys penetrated into Central Asia and Southern Europe, including Greece, Italy, Spain and Southern France, where they have long gained great popularity. Strong, tall breeds of domestic donkeys were bred, such as the Khomad ones in Iran, the Catalan ones in Spain, and the Bukhara ones in Central Asia.

Donkeys are used by man in countries with dry, hot summers and short winters. They do not tolerate cold and especially prolonged rains.

As a working animal in hot countries, the donkey has a number of advantages over the horse: it is hardy, undemanding to feed, less susceptible to disease and more long-lived. As an animal for small transportation and auxiliary chores, the donkey has not lost its significance so far. We use it in Central Asia and Transcaucasia. The donkey is widely used in African countries (especially in North, East and South), as well as in Southwest Asia, in the south of North and South America.

Domestic donkeys mate in spring and early summer. After 12.5 months, the donkey brings one colt, which she feeds with milk for up to 6 months. She is very attached to him. The foal reaches its full growth by the age of two, but it becomes efficient only at the age of 3.

For a long time, since the time of Homer, a mixture of a donkey and a horse has been known - mule. Strictly speaking, a mule is a cross between a donkey and a mare, and hinny- from a stallion and a donkey. However, often any cross between a donkey and a horse is called a mule. Mules are sterile, therefore, to obtain them, it is constantly necessary to keep producers - donkeys and horses. The advantage of the mule is that it is as unpretentious as the donkey, but has the strength of a good horse. Previously, mule breeding flourished especially in France, Greece, Italy, the countries of Western Asia and South America, where millions of these animals were bred.

Kulan, or onager(Equus hemionus), sometimes unfortunately called the Asiatic wild ass or half-ass, is actually a primitive horse and is grouped with other horses into one subgenus.

In appearance, the kulan is light, slender, and tall. However, his head is relatively heavy and his ears are longer than those of a horse, although much shorter than those of a donkey. The tail is short, with a black-brown brush at the end, like donkeys and zebras.

The color of the kulan is sandy-yellow in various shades and saturation (in animals of different subspecies). The belly and inner parts of the legs are white. From the withers to the croup and further along the tail there is a narrow black-brown stripe. The mane is low, erect, black-brown, stretching from the ears to the withers. Body length 200-220 cm, height at the withers 110-137 cm, weight - 120-127 kg.

In early historical times, the kulan inhabited the deserts, semi-deserts and partly the steppes of Eastern Europe, Southern Siberia, Front, Middle and Central Asia, Tibet and Western India. However, this huge area has long been shrinking, especially rapidly over the past hundred years. Now in the USSR, the kulan has been preserved only in the Badkhyz Reserve (Turkmenistan) on the border with Afghanistan and Iran, where about 700 animals live. The kulan was brought to the island of Barsakelmes in the Aral Sea, where about 60 heads live. Outside of our country, it is distributed in Iran, Afghanistan, Mongolia, Northwest China, Tibet, Nepal and Western India.

In terms of lifestyle, kulans of all subspecies are very similar, although in the past, when the kulan inhabited a vast territory from Eastern Transbaikalia and the Baraba steppe in Western Siberia to Tibet, the desert of Western India and Arabia, its habitats were quite diverse. They changed in different seasons of the year and had their own specific features for each subspecies.

In Northern China, the kulan prefers the dry steppes of the foothills, rocky semi-deserts, less often deserts. Along the river valleys on the Nianshan Ridge, the onager rises to more than 3,000 m above sea level. In Tibet, kulans (kiang) rise even higher to high-altitude plateaus covered with cobresia, bluegrass, fescue and sedges, up to 5000 m above sea level.

In Mongolia, kulans graze in small intermountain valleys or lake basins, as well as on small hills at the foot of the mountains.

In Badkhyz, the kulan keeps to semi-desert plains and gentle slopes of hills at an altitude of 300-600 m above sea level. During winter snowstorms and spring dust storms, it takes refuge in narrow valleys and ravines. As in Mongolia, it avoids loose and loose sands where movement is difficult and food is scarce.

At present, when the range and abundance of the kulan have drastically decreased, it is difficult to imagine a general picture of its seasonal migrations. At the same time, there is no doubt that in the past the kulan, more precisely, the northern populations of this species, were characterized by regular movements over many hundreds of kilometers. At the same time, according to the general direction of autumn movements, migrations in the western (Kazakhstan) part of the range and in the eastern (Mongol-Transbaikal) were opposite to each other.

So, from the steppe of Northern Kazakhstan, where the kulans spent their summers (for example, from the Akmola region and the Baraba steppe), in the 18th and 19th centuries they migrated to the Betpak-Dala desert in August. Separate shoals huddled into large herds and, forming huge clusters (up to a thousand heads), moved south. From the beginning of the snowmelt, the kulans set out on their return wandering and in April they again visited the summer pastures. Partially, kulans migrated to the south and from the Northern Balkhash region and the Ili valley. From the northern shore of Lake Balkhash, kulans moved beyond the Chu River in late autumn, and in March - from the southwest to the northeast along the northern shore of Balkhash. Winter accumulations of kulans coming from the north were on Ustyurt in the delta of the Syr Darya, on the Chirchik River and near the Karatau mountains.

The opposite picture took place in the northeastern part of the range. In Mongolia, in connection with the autumn depletion of pastures in semi-deserts and snowfall, kulans migrated mainly to the north to the steppe regions of Eastern Mongolia and Barga up to Transbaikalia. Migrations to the north to the steppe regions were determined by the fact that winter pastures are much richer here in the forb steppes than in semi-deserts, and the snow cover is much less thick. Now, as echoes of past migrations, also in the autumn-winter time, regular visits of kulans to the steppes of Eastern Mongolia and their rare races in Transbaikalia are observed.

The kulan was often written about as a steppe animal, which, having been forced out of the steppes by man, found refuge in the desert. This misconception arose as a result of the fact that the kulan, coming during summer migrations to the steppes, was mainly known to travelers and naturalists of the past here.

Kulans, like horses, feed on a great many herbaceous plants, the number of species of which is now known to be more than a hundred. Cereals, wormwood and saltwort are of the greatest importance in its nutrition. Depending on the place, season and conditions of the year, the importance of various plants in the diet of the kulan varies markedly. In spring, where there are ephemera, kulans feed on them, preferring ephemeral grasses (for example, bluegrass and bonfire). In summer, when many plants dry up, animals look for the most succulent of them, including saltwort. In the autumn, if the pastures turn green again after the rains, the kulans feed, as in the spring, with cereals; if not, they carefully look for saltwort and wormwood that have retained moisture better. In winter, where there is no snow or it is low and loose, animals can easily find all the same food. But if the snow covers the pastures with a layer of 15-20 cm, the kulans dig up the snow with the blows of their hooves-tebenyu. High snow, covering the ground for a long time, is hard for animals to endure, spending a lot of energy on tebenevka. They tend to go to ravines, depressions and gorges, where they often feed on the branches of saxaul and other shrubs, and in especially snowy winters they undertake mass migrations. It is very difficult for kulans to tolerate ice. The legs with which they are forced to get food from under a crust of ice are worn to the blood; kulans starve and often die.

Watering places play an important role in the life of the kulan. In the dry and hot period of the year, when the moisture content of the feed is low, the kulan should drink regularly. Watering holes determine its summer distribution throughout the territory, daily rhythm and behavior. In the spring, when the food is juicy, the animals receive 10-15 liters of water with food and can do without a watering place, but they drink willingly if there are water bodies nearby. As soon as the plants dry up (their moisture content drops below 50%), kulans migrate to pastures located no further than 10-15 km from the watering place.

Kulans go to the water shortly before sunset. They go slowly, feeding along the road and are at the water already in the dark. Having chosen any source, a herd of kulans constantly visits it, so that a well-filled path is formed, which often runs along open lowlands. Kulans avoid narrow gorges, dense bushes or reed beds, but they can descend steep slopes to the water itself.

At any time of the day, kulans can be seen feeding or resting; they do not have strictly defined hours of grazing or rest, but nevertheless, kulans graze less at night than during the day. During the day, the animals spend the most time on grazing - more often 13-15 hours, on transitions - 2-5 hours and on rest - 5-8 hours.

Adult males in the herd are more mobile than females, and they rest less. In the first days after birth, little kulans lie almost all the time and get up only to suck on their mother. They suck every 3-10 minutes, drinking from 100 to 300 g of milk. At the age of ten, the kulan cub sucks every 20-30 minutes, drinking 5-1 liters of milk per day. In order to feed the baby, the female moves away from the herd.

Before sucking, the young kulan pushes the udder several times; while sucking, he smacks loudly and twirls his tail. Kulanyat suckle up to 8-10 months of age, and in the case of a female chalking - up to 14-16 months.

The first attempts to eat grass are made on the 3-5th day of their life. Before biting off a blade of grass, he chews it for a long time. Truly kulanyat graze from the age of one month. At this time, they are still very high-legged and, in order to get grass, they take a funny pose, spreading their front legs wide, sometimes bending them at the carpal joints.

During strong winds or winter snowstorms, kulans stop grazing and go somewhere calm, standing on the leeward side of ravines or bushes (usually with their backs to the wind). Kulanyat always hide behind adults. It is interesting that kulans feel the change in weather 10-12 hours before and almost a day before a snowstorm they go into shelters.

Most of the year, kulans are kept in herds, each of which consists of an adult male, females and young in the first and second years. On average, such a family herd consists of 5-11 animals, sometimes more. Some females with newborns may stray from the herd for a short period at the beginning of summer. During the rutting period, solitary males are often found, mainly those that take part in breeding for the first time.

In autumn and winter, herds unite into herds, the size of which depends on the total number of kulan in the area and on the capacity of pastures. Often such herds are up to 100 or more heads, and in the past, travelers met thousands of shoals in Kazakhstan and Central Asia.

The family herd is headed by the leader male, but the old female leads the herd. The male grazes away from the herd, but watches him all the time. If he needs to direct the herd somewhere, then, pressing his ears, stretching his neck and slightly tilting his head, he urges the females with a wave of his head. On the disobedient, the male rushes with a bared mouth.

V. A. Rashek, who has been watching kulans on the island of Barsakelmes for many years, claims that the leader knows the females from his herd well. Distinguishing all the kulans of the island "by sight", she watched how once two herds mixed up, one of which at that moment did not have a male. The leader male immediately selected his females; not only did he not try to add others to his herd, but, on the contrary, he drove them away; while driving his mother away in the first place. At the same time, sometimes, especially during the rutting period, males join several females from another herd. Because of these females, fights break out between males.

In the herd, in addition to the leader, there is always an older female (not necessarily by age), who leads the herd. There are one or two more females who listen to the older one, but command all the others, and they listen to them and are afraid.

Between some animals in the herd there is a special disposition to each other; such animals almost always walk side by side, do not touch each other's kula-nyat, more often scratch each other, which is a sign of location.

The opinion of some authors that in the herd of kulans, as well as other herd animals, one of the members is on guard duty, is unfounded. All kulans graze or rest at the same time, but each of them from time to time raises his head, peering into the distance, and listens. As soon as one notices something suspicious, he becomes alert, and all the other animals immediately do the same. Signaling between members of the herd is visual, they do not make any sounds when threatened. Frightened kulans rush to run randomly against the wind or sideways to it, but soon stop, peer and listen warily.

Despite caution, kulans are very curious. Seeing something unfamiliar, they always look for some time in the direction of the object that attracted their attention, and then run towards it, trying to enter from the leeward side. A male or a single female usually runs ahead, and mothers with babies, as more cautious ones, remain behind. If kulans see that the object of their curiosity is not dangerous, they do not pay attention to it and calmly leave.

Kulan is an unusually fast and very hardy animal. It can reach speeds of up to 64 km/h, and a 7-10-day-old kula-nenok can reach up to 40 km/h and can withstand this pace for several kilometers. At short distances (several hundred meters), for example, on takyrs, the speed of the kulan is up to 68-72 km / h and more.

M. Levanevsky writes very figuratively about an attempt to pursue a kulan on a horse: “The ease and speed of the kulan's run should be amazed. He, as if jokingly, playing, moves away from the pursuing hunter. No matter how fast you ride after him, no matter how fast the horse is under the rider, the distance between him and the fleeing kulan remains the same. But now, apparently, the wayward animal is tired of seeing an annoying chase behind him - he stops for a minute, looks back as if in surprise, then, hitting himself with his tail on one side, the other, throws up his hind legs, for another minute - and in front of the surprised person there is a cloud of dust on the distant horizon shows the direction in which the noble animal has flown away.

Kulans easily run along the steep and rocky slopes of the mountains, avoiding only narrow gorges. They swim well and cross wide rivers without difficulty.

Kulans are very smart. A male named Tulip, who lived on the island of Barsakelmes for a long time, constantly visited the estate and learned to open all the turntables, the latches on the gates, and even remove the hanging locks that were not locked with a key. This male often attacked domestic horses, and when he was driven away with a whip, he grabbed the whip with his teeth and pulled it out of the hands of the offender.

Kulans have very well developed eyesight, hearing and smell. It is almost impossible to approach the kulan unnoticed closer than 1-1.5 km. However, he can calmly pass by a person lying motionless at a distance of 10-15 le, that is, the vision of a kulan, as the hunters say, is upper. At the same time, it reacts quite well to an object moving along the ground, and it is rarely possible to crawl up to the kulan unnoticed at 150-200 m.

Depending on the direction of the wind, kulans hear a cough or a click of a camera in a shelter at a distance of 30-60 m.

The kulan's sense of smell is acute, but in the desert, where ascending currents of air heated near the soil prevent the spread of odors over the surface, it does not play a big role in the animals receiving information.

Kulans are silent and rarely cry. More often, the cry of a kulan serves as a calling signal. This is how the male calls, calling the herd; the female screams, calling the stray kulanen.

The cry of the kulan resembles the cry of a domestic donkey, but the sounds are more deaf, hoarse, as if they consist of a hoarse inhalation and a louder exhalation in the form of jerky sounds “ish-u...ish-u...” without the final donkey roar. When dissatisfied, kulans squeal. Like horses, they snore and snort.

Kulans treat most animals of a different species peacefully. You can often see kulans grazing with goitered gazelles next to herds of horses.

Mutual signaling exists between kulans and other animals: as soon as gazelles run through, kulans become alert and run in the same direction. Hearing the alarming cry of a bird or marmot, they raise their heads and stop grazing. On pastures, kulans are often accompanied by birds (wagtails, starlings), scurrying near the legs and near the muzzle of the animal in search of insects. In winter, crested larks feed in kopankas; during the molting period, jackdaws often sit on the backs of kulans and pull out their hair for their nests.

However, kulans do not like some animals, such as sheep, and often attack them. Kulans also rush at dogs, trying to bite and kick them. An angry kulan is very ferocious. His eyes are filled with blood, and at this moment he ceases to be afraid even of a person. When defending and attacking, the kulan uses its hind and front legs and teeth. Having knocked down the victim, he tramples and tears it with his teeth.

The female kulan reaches puberty at 2-3 years of age and for the first time brings a foal at 3-4 years. The male also reaches maturity at the age of 3, but takes part in reproduction, having reached 4-5 years, when he manages to beat off the herd of females. The leader male usually leads the herd until the age of 9-10 years, that is, only about 5 years, after which the young ones beat off the females from him, and drive him out of the herd. Females bring offspring up to 15 years, most often up to 13-14 years.

The rut and mating period of the kulan is observed from May to August, depending on the location and conditions of the year; later in the east of the range than in the west. More often, the covering of females occurs in May - July. The sexual cycle (time between estrus) lasts from 17 to 28 days, with an average of 23 days. The first estrus after childbirth occurs on the 5-8th day, and a new coating is more often on the 7-10th day after childbirth. If the female in the first postpartum estrus remains uncovered, then she is fertilized in the next estrus.

During the rut, kulans have "marriage games". Shortly before the start of the rut, the male begins to prance among the females, raising his head high. Often he runs around the herd, jumps and screams in front of the females, sometimes rides on his back, "flaming", tears with his teeth and throws up tufts of grass. Male and female rub heads, necks, sides against each other, touch nostrils, gently push and squeal melodiously. At times they fall on the wrists, bucking slightly, chasing each other.

Even before the start of the rut, in April or earlier, the leader male expels all other males who have reached the age of one from his herd, but if the young male is still suckling his mother, the leader does not touch him.

Young males expelled from the herd walk alone or unite with other males under the leadership of an old male expelled from the herd by a stronger young one who has become the leader. These bachelor herds often break up during the rut, as the males disperse in search of females. When such a male tries to enter the herd with females or when two leaders meet, fierce fights occur between them.

Baring their mouths, flattening their ears, with burning eyes they rush at each other, trying to grab the enemy by the hock. If one of them succeeds, then he begins to twist the seized around his axis until he falls. Immediately leaning on the defeated, the winner gnaws at his neck. If the opponent still manages to break free and run, the strongest catches up with him and grabs him by the tail, which stops him and does not allow him to hit with his hind legs. Having seized the moment, he again grabs him by the hock. Sometimes, rearing up, both opponents, clasping their front legs, gnaw at each other's muzzles, or one of them, the strongest, presses his neck on the opponent's neck, looking for a moment to grab him with his teeth. At the same time, he seeks to raise the front legs bent at the wrists as high as possible so that the enemy cannot reach them with his teeth.

During the rut, males are scarred, some have very large wounds, but fatalities in fights are not known and are likely to be very rare.

After the rut, the leader males leave the herd for some time and keep alone, gaining strength.

Pregnancy in a kulan lasts from 331 to 374 days, an average of 345 days, i.e. 11.5 months. The duration of pregnancy even in the same female in different years can differ by two weeks, and in different females in the herd - up to a month.

Kulanyaty will be born from April to August. At the same time, in the east of the range, where spring is dry and late, the birth of young is shifted to a later date.

In the last days before giving birth, the female grazes away from the herd and does not let anyone near her, even her one-year-old kulanen.

Immediately after birth, she licks the cub, slightly grabbing the skin with her teeth and biting the soft tips of the hooves. The first hours after birth, if the cub lies down and does not suckle for a long time, the mother picks it up and pushes it to the nipples. After a few hours, the female leaves to graze with the baby. On the first day, the newborn's widely spaced hind legs tangle and fall over to one side or the other, but from time to time he still runs a little after his mother, sometimes bucking.

Females with babies join the herd 2-3 days after birth. Seeing a female with a newborn, kulans surround them, trying to sniff the kulan calf, and sometimes they try to bite him, but the mother, screeching, desperately protects the cub, using her hooves and teeth. Having got acquainted with a new member of the herd, the kulans depart, but now one or the other from time to time again approach the kulan.

The grown kulanenok becomes very active and mobile. If the mother is lying, and the baby wants to eat, he walks around the mother, digs the ground with his foot near her belly, puts his feet on the mother's neck. Demanding milk from the walking mother, the kulanen runs ahead, stands across her path, squeals, angrily shakes his head.

The female usually does not let a strange kulanen to her, but there are exceptions when two babies suckle the female at the same time, and at this time she does not let the mother of the kulanen who has stuck to her. Having matured, the kulanets recognize their mother from a distance.

Little kulans sometimes try to beat one-year-olds or two-year-olds, but mothers protect the kids. The male leader does not touch the kulan, on the contrary, protects young kulans or alien females from attack. However, sick kulans are attacked by all kulans, sometimes even the mother, driving them out of the herd until they recover.

Under favorable conditions, females bring offspring annually, especially young ones, sometimes 5-6 years in a row. Older (13-15 year old) females often remain barren. In dry years, especially after severe, snowy winters, less than half of the adult females of the herd bring offspring. On average, herd growth is about 20%.

Kulan is protected in all countries as a wonderful natural monument. In our country, the Badkhyz Reserve (in Turkmenistan) was created mainly for the protection and study of the kulan.

Przewalski's horse(Equus przewalskii) - quite a typical horse, densely built, with a heavy head, thick neck, strong legs and small ears. The tail is short compared to the domestic horse, and the upper part of the tail is covered with short hair. The mane is short, erect, no bangs.

Coloring sandy-yellow or reddish-yellow, whitish on the lower surface. The mane and tail are black-brown, and a black-brown belt runs in the middle of the back from the mane to the root of the tail. Legs of the same color below the hock. The end of the muzzle is white.

In summer, the hair is short, close-lying and the color is bright. In winter, the hair is long, thick and its color is lighter and dirtier than in summer, the dorsal belt in the front part is hardly noticeable.

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Body length 220-280 cm, height at the withers 120-146 cm, weight - 200-300 kg.

The great Russian traveler and explorer of Central Asia N.M. Przhevalsky in 1879 first discovered this only living wild horse in Northwest China, not far from the border with Mongolia.

Once upon a time, the Przewalski's horse was distributed from Northwest China and Southwest Mongolia to Western Kazakhstan. However, already at the end of the last century, at the time of the discovery of N. M. Przhevalsky, its range in the north was limited by the Mongolian Altai, in the south - by the Eastern Tien Shan. In the west, the range reached approximately 86 ° E. D., and in the east - up to 95 ° E. e. Thus, this horse lived in a remote region of China and Mongolia, which has long had the geographical name of Dzungaria. In the mid-1940s, when it was possible to re-examine the habitat of a wild horse, its range, compared to what was known, was reduced by about half. Przhevalsky's horses at that time kept to the north and south of the Baitag-Bogdo-Nuru and Takhiin-Shara-Nuru ridges, on the border of China and Mongolia. Interestingly, Przewalski's horse is called takhi in Mongolian, so the name of one of these ridges can be translated as "the ridge of a wild yellow horse." In the 1940s, not only herds of wild horses were met in this area, but also several foals were caught, including one of the fillies, caught in 1947, was donated to the As-kaniya-Nova kennel and still lives there under the name Eagle III. It is the only free-born wild horse in the world that lives in captivity. Therefore, it is considered an international standard and is of exceptional value.

The Przewalski's horse lives in a semi-desert, partly a desert at an altitude of 700 to 1800 m above sea level. This area is hilly or represents the gentle slopes of low mountains, cut through by numerous large and small dry streams and ravines. The soil is stony, the sands nowhere form vast massifs. In depressions, clayey takyrs are common, sometimes puffy solonchaks and small bitter-salty lakes. At the foot of the ridges, which is very important for horses, there are numerous springs and small streams that disappear in the lower reaches and often dry up. A large number of open water sources is especially important because the climate of Dzungaria is arid and exclusively continental. No more than 200 mm of precipitation falls per year, while it is very uneven over the years. Spring is extremely dry, and the first rains fall only in June. Strong, withering winds are frequent, turning into dust storms, and daily temperature fluctuations reach 25 °. As a result, ephemera do not develop here and green grass appears very late - not earlier than mid-April. Summers are hot (up to 40°C), but not excessively, as the area is significantly elevated above sea level, and rains are relatively frequent (90% of annual precipitation falls in summer), usually in the form of showers. Therefore, the richest pastures are in August, when annuals develop. The winter is sunny, snowless, not cold during the day, but frosts down to -35° are not uncommon at night. Dry autumn and winter keep plants well on the vine, and pastures are rich in succulent fodder in winter.

Where the Przewalski's horse lives, saltwort semi-deserts dominate, covered with barnyard grass, nanophyton, wormwood, and along the slopes of mountains and hills - dry feather grass steppes. Saxaul forests are common in depressions. Tall clumps of chiya and karagana bushes grow along dry streams. On sandy mounds - tamarisk and saltpeter.

Such a variety of habitats allows the Przewalski's horse to make only small seasonal migrations, and this was probably an important reason for keeping it in this area. In winter and spring, it stays in the northern areas, where there are patches of snow, pastures are juicier and shelters can be found from frequent dust storms. In summer, horses go south, where at this time, after the rains, succulent plants develop and small lakes are filled with water. If the year is dry, the horses stay near springs or streams, which always have water in summer due to the high occurrence of groundwater in the Dzungarian Gobi.

The range of seasonal migrations of horses currently does not exceed 150-200 km in a straight line. In the past, when horses reached the Mongolian Altai and the Eastern Tien Shan in winter, it was about 2 times larger. At the same time, Przewalski's horse herds are very mobile and constantly move, not staying in one place for a long time. This is determined both by relatively scarce winter pastures and uneven rainfall across the territory, which leads to patchy distribution of vegetation. The constant life of a nomad probably led to the development of great endurance of the Przewalski horse.

Przewalski horse herds consist of 5-11 mares and young ones led by a stallion. Very little is known about their lifestyle. At the end of the last century, the traveler G. Grumm-Grzhimail Fr. He wrote that “a wild horse is an inhabitant of the flat desert and goes out to graze and drink at night; with the onset of the day, he returns to the desert, where he remains to rest until full sunset ... ”He described one of his meetings with the herd as follows:“ I began to climb hillocks with great caution. Finally, from one of them, about 800 paces, I saw a herd of eight horses, including a foal. The horses did not walk in a crowd, but kept to one line. With their movements and appearance, they exactly resembled our domestic horses, when on a hot day they stretch one after another into the woods or to a watering place, or at sunset they go through the village, heading for their yards. Swaying lazily, wagging their tails and pinching the reeds that came across, they quietly wandered ... "

Despite its small stature, Przewalski's horse is very strong. From fights with domestic horses, wild stallions always come out victorious. D. Tsevegmid wrote that the mare of a wild horse easily coped with the wolf.

Already a few years after the discovery of the Przewalski horse, attempts were made to catch wild horses alive and bring them to Europe.

At the request of the well-known expert on mammals E. Bikhner, as well as the creator and owner of the reserve-acclimatization park Askania-Nova in southern Ukraine F. Falz-Fein, the researcher of Central Asia D. Klements took up the organization of this difficult task. Through the merchant N. Assanov, two experienced hunters were found in the city of Kobda - Vlasov and Zakharov, who for the first time in the spring of 1898. newborn foals were caught in the Dzhungar Gobi. The foals were brought to Kobdo, but due to an oversight, they were drunk not with mare's milk, but with sheep's milk, and three of them died, and the fourth soon fell. In the summer of the same year, D. Clements bought in the Dzungarian Gobi from a Torgout van (prince) two hybrid foals, descended from a domestic horse and a wild stallion.

In the spring of 1899, the hunters of N. Assanov caught 6 more fillies and one foal, of which 5 fillies were sent to Biysk in the fall; the hybrid horses of the Torgout van were also sent there. In Biysk, E. Bikhner was waiting for them, with great difficulty delivering the foals to Aska-Niya-Nova.

These were the first Przewalski's horses brought to Europe.

Having learned about the first wild horses in the Askania-Nova park, the well-known animal dealer in Hamburg K. Hagenbeck sent his agents to Askania-Nova, who found out the names of the suppliers of Przewalski's horses from the park attendants, and in 1901 sent representatives of his company to Biysk, where they persuaded N. Assanov to give them 28 foals. The following year, they bought 11 more foals. These horses were sold by K. Hagenbeck to various zoos around the world.

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. 52 thoroughbred Przewalski horses and 2 hybrids were delivered to Europe. However, only three pairs of horses have served as source material for breeding horses in Europe. At present, all the Przhevalsky horses living in zoos and nurseries of the world, except for Askania-Nova, where Orlitsa III and her offspring, caught in the wild, live, are the descendants of these three pairs. In Askania-Nova, for 66 years, 47 purebred foals of the Przewalski's horse were bred.

Information about the pedigrees and the number of Przewalski's horses in all nurseries and zoos of the world is given in special studbooks published annually in Prague.

As of January 1, 1971, 182 thoroughbred Przewalski's horses lived all over the world (in captivity), of which 41 were in Czechoslovakia, 36 in the USA, 23 in Germany, 18 in Holland, 11 in the USSR and 2-6 each. horses - in other countries. In Askania-Nova there are 8 thoroughbred horses and 2 times more hybrid ones, 2 horses live in the Tallinn Zoo and one in Moscow.

The countries that own Przewalski's horses have undertaken an international obligation to promote in every possible way the increase in the population of this animal, which is of exceptional scientific interest.

Two international symposiums have already been devoted to the Przewalski horse and a special committee has been created under the International Union for Conservation of Nature and its Resources, which aims to study and protect this amazing species.

Steppe tarpan(Equus gmelini) was gray (mouse) in color, its black dorsal belt is wider than that of the Przewalski's horse, and the molars are smaller.

The tarpan lived in the steppes and forest-steppes of the European part of the USSR from the Prut River to the Ural River. In most of its range (from the Azov, Don and Kuban steppes), it disappeared as early as the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries. Tarpans lived in the Black Sea steppes until the middle of the last century, and, apparently, the last of them was killed in the Tauride steppe near the village of Agaimon, 35 km from Askania-Nova, in December 1879. The last horse in captivity, caught near Kherson in 1866 ., fell in the late 80s in the Moscow Zoo. The livestock specialist N. P. Leontovich wrote that the tarpan (probably not completely pure in blood) lived in one farm of the Poltava province as a kosher stallion until 1918 or 1919.

The lifestyle of steppe tarpans is little known. They grazed in the steppe, wandered widely, in the summer they stayed near the steppe lakes, where they came to drink. The herds consisted of 10, sometimes 15 heads led by a stallion. The leader-stallion guarded the school and entered into fierce fights with other stallions who tried to recapture the mares from him. Tarpans sometimes fought off domestic mares, easily defeating domestic stallions. This was one of the reasons for the persecution of the Tarpans. In addition, they ate hay prepared by peasants in winter.

Tarpans were also hunted for meat and skin. Caught foals were tamed, used at work and as riding horses.

In the forests of Belarus, Lithuania, Poland, Germany and, possibly, in some other European countries, lived forest tarpan(E. g. silvaticus).

The forest tarpan was similar to the steppe tarpan and differed from it only in its smaller size and weaker build.

In Central Europe, it was exterminated in the early Middle Ages, but in Poland and East Prussia it survived until the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century. The last forest tarpans lived in a menagerie in Zamosc (Poland) and were distributed to the peasants in 1808. Crossing freely with domestic horses, they gave the so-called Polish horse, a small tarpan-shaped mouse-colored horse with dark legs and a black belt on the back. In the 30s, T. Vetulani began work on the "restoration" of the tarpan. He collected the most tarpan-like horses from the peasants, transported them to Belovezhskaya Pushcha and, through selection, “restored” a horse that looks very similar to a tarpan, but with a long hanging mane and a magnificent tail. These works are continued in Poland on the shores of the Masurian lakes by T. Pruski. Some of the horses on the Popelno peninsula, which extends far into the lake, live in the wild, a few horses are kept in Belovezhskaya Pushcha.

Similar work on the "restoration" of the tarpan was carried out in Germany, and the hybridization of the Polish horse with the Przewalski's horse and pony was also used. Some of these "tarpans" died during the Second World War, several dozen heads still live in Munich.

Of course, these "tarpans" have a negligible proportion of the blood of real tarpans and are a domestic breed of horses, only outwardly similar to the tarpan.

Released domestic horses quickly run wild, but outwardly do not return to their original type. So, mustangs (the feral horses of the Spanish conquerors in America) multiplied unusually, settled widely, their livestock reached several million. However, over the centuries of free life, they have changed little, remaining typical domestic horses.

A herd of feral horses appeared on the Agrakhan Spit on the western coast of the Caspian Sea in the first years of the revolution and lived here for about 20 years. The horses remained variegated, typically domestic. There are feral horses in Western Europe, for example, in the Camargue reserve (the mouth of the Rhone, France).

Origin domestic horse(Equus caballus) remains unclear. The first evidence of domestic horses was found in Mesopotamia and Asia Minor at the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. But domestication happened earlier (5000-6000 years ago), probably among nomads somewhere in Southern Siberia, Mongolia or Kazakhstan. The further spread of the domestic horse across Eurasia was accompanied by the breeding of different types and breeds. At the same time, several species (or subspecies) of wild horses, including the Przewalski's horse, took part in their formation. It is possible that horse breeding in North Asia and Europe arose independently, through the self-taming of local wild horses.

The origin of domestic horses and various breeds, of which more than a hundred are known, is devoted to a huge number of special studies. Tamed horses were first used as slaughter animals. Later they began to be used in hunting and war, and even later - as a labor force.

On the monuments of the Ancient East, about 2000 years BC. e., horses were already depicted in chariots. In the middle of the first millennium BC. e. The best horse breeding in Asia is known in Iran and adjacent countries, where the horses were tall, dry, slender build. At the same time, India was famous for its horses, Turkmen and Arab horse breeding was known. In Europe, breeds of strong horses were bred, which became especially widespread in the Middle Ages for riding knights clad in heavy armor. Later in Europe, breeds of heavy trucks were bred for transport and agriculture.

There are many classifications of horse breeds. Usually, breeds of southern horses are distinguished - mostly fast-gaited, riding, such as Arabian, Don, English blood, Akhal-Teke. Northern horses come in two groups: smaller eastern ones, like Siberian, Mongolian, Yakut, and larger and heavier, like Ardennes, Brabancons, Vladimir. There are many breeds of mixed origin, including the famous Oryol trotters, Kyrgyz, Terek horses and many others.

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Family of mammals of the equine order. About 20 genera; a number of extinct gyracotheres, mesogippus, myohippus, hipparion, etc.; the only modern genus of horse. The most ancient horses lived in the Eocene in North America, from where they later penetrated ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

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Domestic horse ... Wikipedia

Domestic horse Domestic horse (Equus ferus caballus) Scientific classification ... Wikipedia

Horse family - Equidae- the most progressive and highly specialized in adaptability to fast and long running equids.

They have only one (III) finger on their front and hind limbs; only rudiments (II and IV) in the form of so-called slate bones hidden under the skin have been preserved from the lateral fingers. Teeth - 40-44. The hair is close to the body. On the neck there is a mane, a tail with long hair, forming a brush along the entire tip or at the end. The marginal representatives of the family are the small four-toed Hyracotherium (or Eohippus) from the Upper Paleocene and Eocene and the modern genus Equus, which includes horses, wild donkeys, onagers and zebras. In the fossil record, an almost continuous series of transitions connecting these two forms has been preserved.

The natural range of modern horses of the genus Equus is limited to the Old World and covers South Africa, South and Central Asia; even in historical times, horses lived in the steppes and forest-steppes of Europe. Important factors in the evolution of horses, of course, were habitat, food and protection from enemies. It is necessary to take into account both direct and indirect impacts of these and other factors.

In horses of the genus Equus, the function of the teeth is closely related to the functions of the specialized digestive system. This digestive system, characterized by the presence of a caecum and the rapid passage of food, is adapted for processing large quantities coarse fibrous grasses and to extract sufficient nutrients from sparse and low-quality vegetation. Such features of Equus open steppe habitats for them. Equus are capable of surviving on barren steppes unsuitable for most other ungulates.

Animals that nibble grass in the open spaces of the savannas and plains are much more visible to predators than animals that live in the forest. An increase in body size and greater strength is one of the effective ways of protection against predators in terrestrial animals.

Another way is the development of higher nervous activity, and, finally, the third way is the ability to run fast. The tendencies towards the development of these traits in the horse family, in all likelihood, are largely due to the fact that animals living on the plains need protective equipment. Large body sizes solve some problems, but also create new ones. A large grass-eating horse needs larger, harder and more durable teeth to feed than a small grass-eating horse.

Therefore, the directions of evolution of the signs of the teeth, probably adaptively correlated not only with changes in the nature of nutrition, but also with changes in body size.

Horses appeared in North America, where a significant part of their evolution took place, and only in the Tertiary period did they penetrate the Old World. The ancient ancestor of the horse Eohippus, found in the Lower Eocene of North America, was the size of a small dog, had four-fingered forelimbs and three-fingered hind limbs. The molars of Eohippus were low with tubercles on the chewing surface. He lived in subtropical forests and fed on lush vegetation. The larger, the size of a greyhound dog, Mesohippus, found in Oligocene deposits, already had only three fingers on both limbs, but its lateral fingers still reached the ground, and the crowns of the molars were low, although they had a flat, folded chewing surface. Apparently, he lived in the forest and in his way of life resembled tapirs.

The same structure of the hind limbs, but shorter lateral fingers, no longer reaching the ground, and significantly larger body sizes, were distinguished by the Protohippus from the Miocene of North Africa and the hipporion (Hipporion), widespread in the Miocene of Eurasia (lateral branch of horses).

Subsequent Pliocene and Quaternary horses are already characterized by single-toed limbs and long crowns of molars, the chewing surface of which was flat and covered with complex folds. In addition to the Tertiary horses mentioned, a great many other fossil species are known from both the western and eastern hemispheres.

However, by the end of the Pleistocene in America, horses died out completely and did not live to see a person. Only after the discovery of America by Europeans, the domestic horse was brought to the continent. Runaway and feral horses quickly multiplied into huge herds of mustangs that roamed the steppes of America for several hundred years until they were destroyed. Modern representatives of the horse family are considered as belonging to the same genus, or genera (or breeds) of horses and donkeys are distinguished.

Horses are of medium size, excellent build, relatively strong limbs and a lean, elongated head with large, lively eyes, pointed, mobile ears of medium size and wide open nostrils. The neck is thick, with strong muscles, the body is rounded and fleshy, the hair is soft and short, but close to the skin; on the neck they form a mane, on the tail they are also elongated. A single finger, armed with a graceful hoof, is a sufficient sign to distinguish horses from all other odd-toed ungulates. In each half of the upper and lower jaws, the dental system consists of three incisors, six long tetrahedral molars with sinuous folds of enamel on the chewing surface, and one small, slightly curved, blunt canine (the latter sometimes does not exist). In the skeleton, the length of the skull is striking, with only one third falling on the brain box, and two thirds on the facial bones. There are 16 dorsal vertebrae, 8 lumbar vertebrae, 5 sacral vertebrae, and up to 21 caudal vertebrae. Of the digestive organs, the narrow esophagus deserves special attention, the opening of which into the stomach is equipped with a valve. The stomach itself is a simple, not divided into parts, oblong-rounded small bag.
The original area of ​​distribution of horses, the remains of which we first meet in the Tertiary strata, should be considered most of the northern hemisphere. In Europe, wild horses seem to have died out not too long ago: they were found in Western Europe, for example in the Vosges, as early as the 16th century; in Asia and Africa they still roam in herds over the mountains and high-lying steppes*.

* The most archaic forms of horses - donkeys and zebras - have been preserved in Africa, more progressive horses and kulans - inhabit Eurasia.

In America, where the horses died out earlier, they first became feral; even in Australia there are already feral horses**.

* * At the end of the Pleistocene (10-12 thousand years ago), horses in the Western Hemisphere completely died out. Only in the XVI century. domestic horses were brought to the New World; some of them went wild.

They feed on herbs and other plants; in captivity, they also learned to eat animal substances: meat, fish, locusts.
All horses are lively, vigorous, mobile, intelligent animals; their movements are attractive and proud. The common gait of free-living species is a rather fast trot, while at an accelerated run it is a light gallop. Peaceful and good-natured in relation to other animals that do not harm them, they timidly avoid humans and large predators, but in case of extreme they courageously defend themselves from enemies with their teeth and hooves. Their reproduction is insignificant: a mare after a long pregnancy gives birth to only one foal ***.

* * * Perhaps one of the reasons for the rapid extinction of equids is the too low rate of reproduction.

At least two, and more likely three, species of this family have been enslaved by man. No history, no legends tell us of the time when they were first turned into pets; it is not even known for certain in which part of the world the first horses were tamed. It was believed that we owe this to the peoples of Central Asia; however, we have no reliable indication of the time and people in which this domestication took place ****.

* * * * Presumably, the horse was domesticated by the ancient Indo-Europeans in the steppes of the Volga and Ural regions (and possibly southern Siberia) about 5 thousand years ago.

“On the ancient Egyptian monuments,” my learned friend Dyumihen informs me, “the images of horses do not come across until the time of the New Kingdom, therefore, earlier than the 18th or 17th century BC. Only after the liberation of Egypt from the foreign yoke of the Asiatic Hyks, who ruled there for almost half a millennium , that is, from the beginning of the new kingdom, images and inscriptions prove to us that the horse was used among the ancient inhabitants of the Nile Valley.I do not at all think, however, that the horse was unknown to the Egyptians before the 18th century BC, on the basis of the absence of indications on ancient monuments or , rather, on the basis of the fact that no earlier monument depicting a horse has yet been found.Thus, there is no evidence in favor of Ebers' suggestion that the introduction of this animal into Egypt was carried out by the Hyks. on this issue, I fully share the view of Shab that all the evidence that has come down to us is suggest that these barbarians had neither wagons nor horses, the ancient Egyptians must have known the horse long before the dominion of these wild tribes, since it took, of course, a much longer time for the horse to stay in country of the pharaohs. Here, since the 18th century, horses have been used for military purposes.
The campaigns of the Egyptians of the New Kingdom completely change their appearance. Meanwhile, on the monuments of the Old Kingdom we find only images of heavily and lightly armed foot troops, from that time horse-drawn war chariots occupy the first place in the ranks of the Egyptian troops, from that time their conquest campaigns extend far into the depths of neighboring Asia, to countries lying on the Euphrates and the Tigris. And this use for military purposes of the horse and chariot, so characteristic of that time, the Egyptians, apparently, really learned only from the Asian peoples, note riders, of course, well acquainted with the horse; the Hyks, however, did not belong to them, since they were a pastoral people. But the horse was not used exclusively for war; various inscriptions testify beyond any doubt that the ancient Egyptians also used it in domestic and rural work. We read that a noble Egyptian leaves his estate on a horse; in Ancient Egypt knew how to make full use of this noble domestic animal."

* Egyptians. like most Mediterranean peoples, they used horses only as a draft animal, although the Indo-Europeans of their time probably already knew how to ride. Bulls and donkeys were mainly used for agricultural work, while horses were harnessed to war and festive chariots. War cavalry appeared at the beginning of the first millennium BC among the Assyrians; obviously, they adopted the skills of riding from the Scythian-Sarmatian (Indo-European) tribes. The Assyrians also invented the saddle and some important parts of the harness. In Europe, the saddle was invented a second time by the Germans and Romans in the 4th century. n. e.

Incomparably more meager data than the Egyptian sources give other monuments regarding the first periods of domestication of the horse. We assume that it was used as a pet in India and China at about the same time as in Egypt, but we are unable to prove this; we have found its remains in the piled buildings of Switzerland, belonging to the later Stone Age, but we cannot determine this time more precisely.
Even now, in the steppes of southeastern Europe, herds of horses roam in multitudes; some consider them the wild ancestors of our domestic animal, others think that they are its feral descendants. These horses are called tarpans(Equus cabal have all the qualities of real wild animals, which the Tatars and Cossacks consider them to be. The tarpan is small in stature, he has thin but strong legs with long pasterns, a rather long and thin neck, a relatively thick hook-nosed head, pointed, forward-pointing ears and small eyes, lively, with an evil twinkle; the coat is thick, short, wavy, on the back it can be called almost curly; in winter it becomes hard, strong and long, especially on the chin, where it forms something like a beard; the mane is short, thick, disheveled and curly, tail of medium length.
In summer, uniform black-brown, yellowish-brown or dirty yellow color prevails in color; in winter, the hair becomes lighter, sometimes even white, and the mane and tail are evenly dark in color *.

* The most common color for tarpans was mouse-gray with black legs, mane, tail, "belt" on the back. Often on the front legs obscure transverse stripes were visible.

Pied tarpans are never found, black ones are rare.
The first detailed data on the tarpan, as far as I know, was supplied by Gmelin on the basis of observations he could make in 1769; we owe further information to Pallas. Their statements are fairly consistent with each other. “Twenty years ago,” says the first, “here, near Voronezh, there were quite a lot of wild horses; but since they did a lot of harm, they were driven further and further into the steppe and very often scattered them.” Gmelin tells further how he received new news about the presence of these animals and, having then gone hunting, saw them in the vicinity of the county town of Bobrov. Together with them was a Russian mare. Having killed the stallion, the leader of the herd, and two mares, he, moreover, took possession of a live foal. Pallas also considers the horse and tarpan to be one species.

“I begin to assume more and more,” he says, “that the wild horses roaming in the Yaik and Don, as well as in the Baraba steppe, for the most part, are nothing more than the descendants of feral Kirghiz or Kalmyk horses, or they are descended from stallions, belonging to the pastoral peoples who roamed here before; these stallions led either individual mares, or whole herds, and gave offspring with them. Radde speaks differently; he writes to me the following: “In the early 50s, east of the lower Dnieper, a horse of bay color, clumsy build, short stature, with a heavy head and a somewhat arched muzzle was called a tarpan. This horse was considered there not feral, but wild. According to Basell, who had large estates in the lower reaches of the Dnieper (it is quite possible to rely on their words), the tarpan kept in the steppes in small herds and was hunted.The reports of the Swiss Merz and Philibert in the Atimanay estate near the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov, not far from flourishing Mennonite and Württemberg settlements. locals and settlers consider this animal wild. I subscribe to these views."
About the way of life of tarpans they tell approximately the following: tarpans are always met with herds, which can consist of several hundred heads. As a rule, a large herd breaks up into smaller societies, similar to families; each of them is headed by a stallion. These herds occupy vast open and elevated steppes and migrate from place to place, usually going against the wind. They are extremely attentive and shy, look around with their heads held high, listen, prick up their ears, flare their nostrils, and almost always notice the danger threatening them in time. The stallion is the only ruler of society. He cares about his safety, but does not tolerate any unrest between his subordinates. He drives away young stallions, and until they themselves lure or win a few mares for themselves, they follow a large herd only at a certain distance. Noticing anything suspicious, the stallion begins to snort and quickly move his ears, runs out, raising his head high, in a certain direction, neighs piercingly if he notices any danger, and then the whole herd breaks off at the most insane gallop. Sometimes animals disappear as if by magic: they hide in some ravine and wait for what will happen. Brave and warlike stallions are not afraid of predatory animals. They rush at the wolves with a neigh and knock them to the ground with the blows of the hooves of their front legs. The fable, as if they become a circle of the herd with their heads inward and continuously beat with their hind legs, has long been refuted.
The inhabitants of the steppes, who breed horses, are even more afraid of tarpans than wolves, since they often do them great harm. According to information collected by Gmelin, they willingly keep close to large haystacks, which Russian peasants often set at a distance from the villages, and they like hay so much that two tarpans in one night can destroy a whole stack. Gmelin believes that this circumstance can easily explain why they are so fat and round.
Tarpan is difficult to tame; this animal seems incapable of enduring captivity. Before his extremely lively character, strength and savagery, even the art of the Mongols experienced in handling horses is powerless. “Osip Shatilov,” notes Radde, “received a live tarpan at the end of the 50s and sent it to the Imperial Academy of Sciences, which handed it over to Brandt. With a calm content in the stable, the tarpan behaved very well, while it was demanded of him, only that he daily he ate the hay given to him, otherwise he remained as he was a vicious, capricious animal, which, at every opportunity, persistently tried to bite and kick the one who approached him and did not succumb to even the most meek treatment, since at the Academy he was considered only a feral horse , then after some time they gave it to a horse lover.11 Due to the significant harm that tarpans bring to breeding horses in the steppes, often taking whole herds with them, they are zealously and fiercely hunted. and easily become the prey of hunters*.

* The last forest tarpans were exterminated in East Prussia in 1814; In Germany and Poland, selection work was carried out to identify the hidden signs of tarpan among domestic horses. The resulting breed possessed the entire set of external features of the tarpan. However, genetically, these horses are not tarpans, but just "tarpanoids".

These data leave unresolved the question of the origin domestic horse(Equus caballus ferus); existing views contradict each other**.

* * The steppe tarpan is usually considered the ancestor of the domestic horse, less often the Przewalski's horse.

The way of life of the tarpan does not allow one to make assumptions about what it was originally, since horses run wild easily and quickly. This fact is convincingly proved by the herds inhabiting the steppe regions of South America. Let us first take a look at them, based on the indications of reliable people.
“The city of Buenos Aires, founded in 1535,” says Azara, “was subsequently abandoned. The departing inhabitants made sure to collect all their horses. But 5-7 horses remained and were left to their own devices. When in 1580 the same the city was again occupied and inhabited, many horses were found, the descendants of these few left, but completely feral. Already in 1596, everyone was allowed to catch these horses for their own benefit. Such is the origin of the countless herds of horses that roam south of the Rio de Laplata. " Cimmarons, as these horses are called, now live in all parts of the Pampas in numerous herds, which sometimes can consist of several thousand heads. Each stallion collects as many mares as he can, but remains with them in the company of the other horses of the herd. There is no special leader.
Cimmarons cause a lot of harm, as they not only destroy good pastures, but also lead away domestic horses. Luckily, they never show up at night. It is surprising to note that the roads along which they pass are sometimes covered with their manure for several kilometers. There is no doubt that they find ways to defecate. And since all horses have a habit of sniffing the stools of other animals of the same species and increasing their quantity with their own, such places covered with dung grow to the size of real mountains. The savages in the pampas eat the meat of cymmarons, namely foals and mares. They also catch some of them to tame; the Spaniards do not use them for anything and rarely catch a wild horse for taming.
The horses of South America spend the whole year outdoors. Every 8 days they are driven together so that they do not scatter, their wounds are examined, they are cleaned and smeared with cow dung and from time to time, after about 3 years, the mane and tail are cut off. Nobody thinks about improving the breed. The pastures there are poor, as the soil is covered by a single type of grass. In the spring, this grass grows strongly, but then it produces diarrhea in the horses and therefore exhausts them. In summer and autumn, mustangs get better and even get fat, but as soon as they are used for riding, they fall off the body. Winter is the worst time for them. The grass withers, the animals must be content with stiff, rain-soaked straw. This food makes them crave salt. You can watch how they stay for hours on salt marshes and lick salty clay. When kept in a stable, they do not need salt. Horses that are better fed and cared for more, within a few months acquire a short and shiny coat, strong muscles and noble forms.
“Usually,” Rengger says, “these horses live in herds in a certain area, which they are accustomed to from youth. Each stallion is assigned 12-18 mares; he gathers them together and protects them from other stallions. does not protect them.The foals live with their mothers until the third or fourth year.The queens show great affection for the foals while they are still suckling, and sometimes protect them even against the jaguar.Often they have to endure battles with mules, in which at times something like motherly love is aroused Then they try by cunning or force to lead away the foals and let them suck their milk-deprived udder, but the poor creatures, of course, die in the process.
When the horses reach the age of a little more than 2 or 3 years, one of the young stallions is chosen, young mares are given to him, and he is taught to graze with them in a certain area. The rest of the stallions are castrated and combined into special herds. All horses belonging to the same herd never mix with others and stick together so tightly that it is difficult to separate a few grazing horses from the rest. If this order is violated, for example, when all the horses of one farm are driven together, then they immediately look for each other again. The stallion calls his mares to him with a neigh, the geldings look for each other, and each herd again goes to its pasture. For 1000 or more horses, it takes less than a quarter of an hour to separate into groups of 10-30 heads. I think I have already noticed that horses of the same size or of the same color get used to each other more easily than different ones, and also that strangers imported from Banda Oriantal and Antre Rios are connected mainly with each other, and not with local horses. These animals, moreover, show great attachment not only to their comrades, but also to their pastures. I have seen some who have returned to their old familiar places after traveling 80 hours.
The senses of these almost wild animals seem to be sharper than those of European horses. Their hearing is extremely thin; at night, they show by moving their ears that they catch the lightest, completely inaudible rustle for the rider. Their vision, like all horses, is rather weak; but through life in freedom, they learn to distinguish objects at a considerable distance. With the help of smell, they make up an idea about the surrounding objects. They sniff anything that seems unfamiliar to them. With the help of this feeling, they learn to recognize their master, the harness, the shed in which they are saddled, they are able to distinguish bogs in marshy areas and find the way to their dwelling or pasture in a dark night or thick fog. Good horses sniff at their rider as he mounts, and I have seen some that either would not allow the rider to mount themselves at all, or would not obey him unless he was wearing a poncho or cloak, such as the country people always wear, taming and circling horses. If they are afraid of some object, then it is easier to calm them down by letting them sniff this object. At a great distance, however, they do not smell. I have rarely seen a horse that could recognize the presence of a jaguar at 50 paces or less. Therefore, in the populated areas of Paraguay, they constitute the most common prey of this predator. When in dry years the springs from which the mustangs used to drink dry up, they would rather die of thirst than find others, while cattle go for water often at a distance of up to 10 hours. Their taste is developed in different ways: some are easily accustomed to stable food and get used to eating various fruits and even dried meat, others are ready to die of hunger rather than touch food other than ordinary grass. Their sense of touch is very dull from their youth due to life in the open air and the fact that they are tormented by mosquitoes and horseflies.
The life of feral horses in the llanos *, located further north, was masterfully described to us in short words Humboldt: “During the summer, the vertical rays of the sun, never covered by clouds, completely burn out and turn to dust the entire grass cover of these immeasurable plains; the soil is constantly cracking, as if torn apart by powerful earthquakes.

* Feral horses exist in all parts of the world. Particularly popular are North American mustangs, medium-sized horses of light build, descended from conquistador horses. The first mustangs appeared in America, probably in the 40s. 16th century Their numbers quickly grew to millions of heads. At present, no more than 17 thousand mustangs have survived in North America; in South America, they are apparently exterminated. Most feral horses are now in Australia. In Russia, feral horses are found in the Caspian Sea, on some of the Kuril Islands. Despite many generations raised in the wild and subjected to natural selection, mustangs and other feral horses have not regained the signs of a wild horse. They have long "recumbent" or semi-erect manes and bangs (all wild horses have only erect ones), they can have the most diverse color. Only the wild horses of the Camargue, in southern France, are always light gray in adulthood.

Surrounded by thick clouds of dust, tormented by hunger and tormented by thirst, horses and cattle roam there, the former stretching their necks high and sniffing against the wind in order to guess the proximity of the still not completely dry lake by the humidity of the air. More sensible and cunning mules try to quench their thirst in other ways. One spherical and ribbed plant, the melon cactus, encloses an abundant water-bearing pulp under its prickly shell. The mule knocks down the thorns with its front legs and drinks the cool juice of the cactus. But drawing from this living plant source is not always safe; often you can see animals that are limping, studded with thorns. When at last, after the scorching heat of the day, the coolness of the night comes, just as long, then even then the horses and cattle cannot rest. Vampires stalk them while they sleep and sit on their backs to suck their blood.
When, after a long summer drought, the fertile rainy season sets in, the scenery changes completely. As soon as the surface of the earth gets wet, the steppe begins to be covered with beautiful greenery. Horses and cattle go out to pasture, joyfully enjoying life. However, a jaguar hides in the tall grass and seizes a horse or foal with a sure jump. The rivers are soon overflowing, and the same animals that have been thirsty for months must now lead the life of amphibians. Mares with foals retreat to higher places, which are issued in the form of islands above the surface of the water. Every day the land area is shrinking. Due to the lack of pasture, the shy animals swim for whole hours and feed poorly on the flowering tops of the grasses that protrude above the surface of the brown swamp water. Many foals drown, many are seized by crocodiles, their bodies are crushed with tail blows and swallowed. Often on the hips of horses there are traces of crocodile teeth in the form of large scars. Among the fish, they also have a dangerous enemy. The swamp water is teeming with electric eels. These wonderful fishes have enough strength to kill the largest animals with their electric shocks, especially if all their batteries are immediately discharged in a certain direction. One steppe road near Uri-Tuk had to be abandoned due to the fact that in a small river crossing the path, so many eels had accumulated that they annually stunned many horses who drowned during the crossing.
It must be said, however, that horses themselves often do more harm to themselves than the most dangerous enemies. They are sometimes seized by the strongest fright. Hundreds and thousands of them, like madmen, rush to flight, not stopping in front of any obstacle, run up the rocks or crash into the abysses. They suddenly appear at the camps of travelers sleeping in the open steppe, rush between the fires through tents and wagons, instill panic in pack animals, tear them off their leash and carry them away forever in their living stream. So says Murray, who experienced and survived such an attack. Further north, the Indians increase the number of enemies that poison the existence of these animals. They catch them, teach them to saddle and use them on hunts, while they torture them so much that even the most vigorous horse dies in a short time. Both among the Bedouins of the Sahara and among the Indians, the horse often becomes the cause of the bloodiest battles. Whoever has no horses tries to steal them. Horse stealing is held in high esteem by the Redskins. Bands of thieves follow wandering tribes or caravans for weeks on end until they find a chance to drive off all the mounts. American horses are also zealously pursued for their hides and meat. Near Las Nocas, Darwin relates, a large number of mares are killed weekly for the sake of skins. In war, detachments of troops sent on a long journey take with them only herds of horses for food. These animals are also more convenient for them than cattle, because they allow greater mobility of the troops.
That domestic horses can still run wild at the present time, we learn from Przhevalsky. During his travels in Mongolia, this fine observer saw small herds of feral horses, which, ten years earlier, lived in a domestic state; left to the mercy of fate by the inhabitants of the Chinese province of Gansu during the Dungan troubles, they became so timid within a short time that they ran away from people like real wild horses*.

* Przhevalsky's horse (E. przewalskii), found in Dzungaria by the second expedition of N. m. Przewalsky in 1877, is sometimes considered as one of the subspecies of the wild horse along with tarpans. The last wild horses of this species were observed in Western Mongolia in the 60s of the XX century. Systematic breeding of the Przewalski's horse in zoos is underway (in total there are more than 500 animals in captivity), the first batch (about 40 animals) has already been released into their former habitats.

A description, or even an enumeration, of the almost innumerable breeds of the domestic horse is beyond the scope of this work**.

* * In total, more than 200 breeds of horses are registered in the world.

It will suffice here to add a few words to the beautiful images which we owe to the skilful hand of Camphausen, more for the purpose of explaining the signatures than for the purpose of giving full descriptions.
Above all breeds of horses stands even now Arabian horse.“Purebred horses,” writes Count Wrangel, “do not have a nobler representative than a pure Arabian horse; it stands on the border between natural and cultural races and, as the noblest animal in the world, equally delights a naturalist, a connoisseur of horses, and a poet ".

The antiquity of this race, in the first place, is not at all as great as is usually accepted and as the Arabs are willing to assure. They are of the opinion that the five most remarkable families of their horses are descended from the five mares of King Solomon, which was also confirmed by Abd-el-Kader, arguing with Blunt. But Count Wrangel, relying on the studies of A. Baranskis, points out that only in the 4th century AD Ammianus Marcellinus mentions the fast horses of the Saracens: "In the 7th century, during the time of Mohammed, the horse was used everywhere in Arabia and from that time became the subject of a real cult sons of the desert."
According to the generally accepted requirements of the Arabs, a noble horse must combine a proportional build, short and mobile ears, heavy but graceful bones, a dry muzzle, nostrils "of the same width as a lion's mouth", beautiful, dark, bulging eyes, "similar in expression to eyes of a loving woman", a somewhat arched and long neck, a wide chest and a wide sacrum, a narrow back, steep hips, very long true ribs and very short false, lean body, long shins "like an ostrich" with muscles "like a camel", a black single-colored hoof, a thin and sparse mane and a thick tail, thick at the root and thin towards the end. The Arabian horse must have four broad parts: forehead, chest, thighs and joints; four long: neck, upper limbs, belly and groin; four short ones: sacrum, ears, frog and tail. These qualities prove that the horse is of good breed and fast on the run, since in this case it is similar in its constitution to "a greyhound dog, a pigeon and a camel at once." The mare must have "the courage and breadth of the head of a wild pig, attractiveness, the eyes and mouth of a gazelle, the gaiety and intelligence of an antelope, the dense build and speed of an ostrich, and the tail is short, like that of a viper."
A thoroughbred horse is also recognized by other signs. She likes trees, greenery, shade, running water, and to such an extent that she neighs at the sight of these objects. She does not drink until she touches water with her foot or mouth. Her lips are always compressed, her eyes and ears are always in motion. She quickly stretches her neck to the right and left, as if she wants to talk to the rider or asks for something. It is further stated that she never mates with her close relative. According to our concepts, the Arabian horse is very small, since it barely reaches 1.5 m in height, very rarely more. Real non-Jed horses, according to V. G.
Pelgravu and Vincenti, on average, also do not exceed this value. Palgrave did not see any that reached a height of 1.6 m. De Vaugrenant describes the Nejed horses as even very small and determines their height as only 1.32-1.43 m. It goes without saying that the animals are of such insignificant size, although and can compete with our large thoroughbreds, but only in endurance, and not in speed on the races.
In the eyes of the Arabs, the horse is the noblest of all created animals, and therefore it enjoys almost the same respect as a noble person, and more than an ordinary mortal. Among a people who sparsely inhabit the vast expanse of this part of the globe, a people who are incomparably less attached to the land than we Westerners, whose main occupation is cattle breeding, the horse should be in the greatest honor. She is necessary for an Arab to live, to exist, with the help of her he roams, travels, grazes his flocks on horseback, thanks to her she shines in battles, at festivities, public meetings; he lives, loves and dies on a horse. An Arab's love for a horse is an innate feeling, especially for a Bedouin: he absorbs respect for this animal with his mother's milk. This noble creature is the most reliable comrade of the warrior, the most faithful servant of the ruler, the favorite of the whole family. That is why the Arab watches the horse with anxious care, studies its temperament, needs, sings of it in his poems, glorifies it in songs, finds in it the most pleasant subject for conversation. “When the creator wished to create a horse,” Eastern sages teach, “he said to the wind: I want a creature to be born from you, appointed to carry my worshipers. This creature should be loved and revered by my slaves. It should inspire fear in all those who disobey my commandments." And he created a horse and called to it: "I have made you perfect. All the treasures of the earth lie before your eyes. You will plunge my enemies under your hooves and carry my friends on your back. You will become a seat from which prayers will be offered to me. Throughout the earth, you must be happy and honored above all other creatures, since the love of the lord of the earth will belong to you. You must fly without wings and win without a sword! " As a result of this opinion, a belief has developed that a horse can only be happy in the hands of the Arabs; this, they say, explained the former unwillingness to yield horses to the Gentiles, which is now, however, no longer strictly observed. Abd-el-Kader, when he was still at the height of his power, punished by death all the faithful, on whom he was informed that they had sold one of their horses to Christians.
All Arabs believe that noble horses have been preserved in the same perfection for millennia, and therefore they carefully monitor the breeding of their horses. There is a very high demand for stallions of a good breed: mare owners travel far to get such stallions for mating. As a reward for this, the owner of the stallion receives as a gift a certain amount of barley, a sheep and a wineskin of milk. Taking money is considered shameful; whoever wanted to do this would acquire the infamous title of "horse love seller". Only if a noble Arab is required to lend his noble stallion for mating with an ordinary mare, he has the right to refuse the request. During pregnancy, the horse is treated very carefully, but it is not ridden only in the last weeks. While the mare is foaling, witnesses must be present to certify the parentage of the foal. The foal is brought up with special care and from youth they look at him as a member of the family. Therefore, Arabian horses have become pets, and they can be safely allowed into the owner's tent or to children.
From the 18th month, the upbringing of a noble creature begins. First, a boy tries to ride it. He leads the horse to water, pasture, cleans it and generally takes care of all its needs. Both learn at the same time: the boy becomes a rider, the foal becomes a riding horse. But a young Arab will never force a foal entrusted to him to work too hard, will never demand from him what is beyond his strength. Every movement of the animal is watched, treated with love and tenderness, but they do not tolerate stubbornness and anger. Only in the third year is a saddle put on him; at the end of the third year they are gradually accustomed to exert all their strength. Only when a horse has reached its seventh year is it considered trained. Therefore, an Arabic proverb says: "Seven years for my

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