State educational institution of higher professional education "Perm State Humanitarian Pedagogical University"

Faculty of Physical Education

Lysenko Vladimir Sergeevich

student group 351

Research of the mental experience of students of the Faculty of Physical Education

Final qualifying work in the specialty 13.00.04 - Physical culture and sports

Qualification - teacher of physical culture and sports

Perm, 2015

2. Introduction

3. Chapter 1. Analysis of psychological theories of intelligence

4.1.1 Approaches to the study of intelligence

5.1.2 Intelligence as a form of organizing mental experience

6.1.2.1 Mental structures

7.1.2.2 Mental space

8.2.3 Mental Representation

9.1.3 Composition and structure of mental experience

10. 1.3.1 Psychological model of the device of mental experience

11. 1.3.2 Features of the organization of cognitive experience

12. 1.3.3 Features of the organization of metacognitive experience

13. 1.3.4 Features of the organization of intentional experience

14. Chapter 2. Organization and research methodology

15. Chapter 3. Research results.

16. Conclusions

17. Bibliography

Introduction.

At the present stage of development of physical culture great importance attached to its intellectual direction. Low indicators of concept formation among students of the Faculty of Physical Education were the reason for turning to mental experience (the carrier of the properties of intelligence). But in the structure of intelligence, metacognitive experience is also distinguished, which are in a hierarchical relationship with the former. Thus, the study of the metacognitive experience of future physical culture teachers (where the key word is culture) is a logical continuation of the study of the problem of the formation of intelligence in the process of vocational education.

In connection with the improvement of Russian school education, new requirements are being set for academic subjects. Personally-oriented education and an activity-based approach to teaching presuppose the formation of properties and skills that contribute to the effectiveness of activities. From the knowledge-based approach, which distinguished the traditional school of the information society, the school is moving to a developmental model. It seems to us that the implementation of the standard is impossible without the inclusion of the intellectual sphere of the individual in the educational process in physical culture. The study of a subject is impossible without operating with concepts, a broad outlook and the categorical nature of the cognitive position of the subject of education. In addition, if we move on to a developing model of education (and this is one of the main conditions for the modernization of education), then the educational process should be organized in such a way that knowledge is given and assimilated not for the sake of knowledge itself, but so that it is applied in practice, speaking at this also as a means of developing the intelligence of students.

The situation is further complicated by the crisis in the study of intelligence itself. The testological approach to its study led to a paradoxical situation: the "disappearance" of intelligence as psychological phenomenon... So relevance we see research not only in the need for the development of intelligence in physical culture lessons, but also in the analysis of modern theories of its study and presentation.

Concerning, aim our research was a study of the mental experience of students of the Faculty of Physical Education.

Object research is a mental experience.

Subject research was the dynamics of the mental experience of students of the Faculty of Physical Education.

Hypothesis. It was assumed that studying at a higher educational institution for 5 (and more) years, entails a characteristic development and enrichment of the mental experience of students.

According to the goals and the hypothesis put forward, the following were set before the study. tasks:

1. Analyze the literature on the research problem.

2. To reveal in students in the first and fifth courses the levels of formation: open cognitive position, conceptual and semantic structures of intelligence.

3. Conduct a comparative analysis of the level of formation of mental structures of intelligence among students in the first year of study and in the fifth.

Research novelty. If we understand intelligence as a mental experience, then the formation of its constituent structures among students of the Faculty of Physical Education and teachers is not fully adequate.

Practical significance. The results of the work can be used in the work of university teachers. Knowing the level and possibilities of students' mental experience, it is possible to change the teaching technology towards their correction.

Chapter 1. Analysis of psychological theories of intelligence.

Approaches to the study of intelligence.

In the introduction to this work, we have already mentioned the crisis phenomena in the study of intelligence. Let's dwell on this in more detail.

The crisis of the testological approach in defining the concept of "intelligence" is a manifestation of a general crisis of descriptive theories, as well as a crisis of extensive empirical psychology. An eternal dilemma. Which is better: to know more about what, or less about how and why?

Experimental psychological theories of intelligence developed within the framework of various foreign and domestic approaches and focused on identifying the mechanisms of intellectual activity were a kind of reaction to the non-constructiveness of testological theories. In order to streamline the material accumulated in this area of ​​psychological research, we will single out several basic approaches, each of which is characterized by a certain conceptual line in the interpretation of the nature of intelligence.

1. Phenomenological approach (intelligence as a special form of the content of consciousness).

2. Genetic approach (intelligence as a result of increasingly complex adaptation to the requirements of the environment in natural conditions of human interaction with the outside world).

3. Sociocultural approach (intelligence as a result of the process of socialization, as well as the influence of culture in general).

4. Procedural and activity approach (intellect as a special form of human activity).

5. Educational approach (intelligence as a product of purposeful learning).

6. Informational approach (intelligence as a set of elementary information processing processes).

7. Functional-level approach (intelligence as a system of multilevel cognitive processes).

8. Regulatory approach (intelligence as a factor in self-regulation of mental activity).

Each direction (in the form of experimental research, doctrine or theory) opens up a new perspective on the problem of human intelligence, so they are all interesting not so much for their facts, formulations and grounds, but for the questions that arise in this case. A general question might sound like this: what have we learned about intelligence through experimental psychological research?

We learned, firstly, that the development and work of the intellect depend on the influence of a number of factors and, secondly, that there are various functional properties of the intellect that characterize certain psychological mechanisms for performing intellectual activity and which, to one degree or another, may indicate about the level of development of the subject's intellectual capabilities. Schematically, the main content of the considered experimental psychological theories of intelligence can be presented in Table 1.

Thus, we know what affects intelligence and how it manifests itself, but what intelligence is - we do not know. In other words, intelligence as a psychic reality “disappeared” in experimental psychological research, turning into a kind of “black box”, which in the plane of “factors - manifestations” can be studied indefinitely, albeit with a deplorable result, which is easy to predict in advance. For with such a formulation of the problem of intelligence at any stage of its study, we, following Spearman, can repeat to ourselves: "The concept of intelligence has so many meanings that, in the end, it has none."

Table 1

Functional properties and factors of intelligence identified in experimental psychological research.

In most approaches, there has been a tendency to seek an explanation of the nature of intelligence outside of intelligence by referring to certain non-intellectual factors.

Difficulties in understanding the ontological status of the concept of "intelligence", I think, are largely associated with the fact that the subject of research all this time were the properties of intelligence (productive and functional manifestations of intellectual activity in a certain "task" system of relations). However, attempts to form an idea of ​​the nature of intelligence on the basis of a description of its properties turn out to be a paradoxical result: an excessive amount of knowledge about intelligence turns into some of their quality with a negative sign.

In the opinion of Maria Alexandrovna Kholodnaya, the question of the nature of intelligence requires a fundamental reformulation. It is not necessary to answer the question: "What is intelligence?" (followed by a listing of its properties), but to the question: "What is intelligence as a psychic carrier of its properties?"

One of the answers to this reformulated question is presented in the monograph by M.A. Cold: the bearer of the properties of intelligence is an individual mental (mental) experience.

According to Teplov:

Ability is an individual psychological feature that is related to the success of the performance of an activity, not reducible to ZUN. And intelligence and creativity are abilities.

Psi of intelligence is a differential psychology, which means it must answer the questions: what are the reasons for individual differences and what method can be used to identify them.

The main criterion for identifying intelligence as an independent reality is its function in the regulation of behavior... When they talk about intelligence as a certain ability, they first of all rely on it adaptive value for humans and higher animals.

Intelligence:

System of mental operations

Problem solving style and strategy

The effectiveness of an individual approach to a situation requiring cognitive activity

3 options for understanding intelligence as:

Measurable ability to successfully complete intellectual tasks (tests)

Ability to cope with new situations, making the best of past experiences and generating new adaptive and creative responses

Learning ability

There are fundamentally different approaches to the study of intelligence:

Factor-analytical approach (Spearman, Thurstone, Eysenck, Wexler, Guildford)

Structural-genetic approach (Piaget)

For a very long time, there have been two opinions about intelligence:

1. intelligence is a purely hereditary trait: either a person is born smart or not.

2. intelligence is related to the speed of perception or response to external stimuli.

	J. Piaget	C. Spearman	G. Gardner	R. Sternberg
Approaches to the problem of intelligence	Theory and development of intelligence	psychometrics		The importance of cultural characteristics.
model		Hierarchical model.		The cognitive model is more general psychological than differential. Hierarchical.
Intelligence	Universal adaptability, achieving equilibrium of the individual with the environment. The main function of intelligence is to structure the relationship between the organism and the environment.	The G-factor is overall ability. Activity-specific S-factor.	the ability to solve problems or create products due to cultural products and social environment. 6 types of intelligence, independent: 1. Verbal-linguistic 2. Logical-mathematical 3. Visual-spatial 4. Bodily-kinesthetic, physical 5. Musical-rhythmic 6. Emotional	Intelligence is the ability to learn and solve problems in the face of incomplete explanation. Three types of components of intelligence responsible for processing information: 1. Metacomponents - management processes 2. Executive components 3. Components of knowledge acquisition in order to learn how to manage and do something directly. Described at the level of behavior, 3 forms: 1. Verbal intelligence - vocabulary, erudition, reading comprehension 2. Creative - The ability to solve problems or work with new situations 3. Practical intelligence (the ability to achieve goals)
Method	4 years and older - "Piaget problems" = "tests for maintaining equality" (weight, length, volume, number, etc.)	Tests.	IQ tests.	It is better to study in conditions that are relatively new for the respondent, because there will be automatisms or a person will not be able to solve at all (Like the ZPD).
peculiarity	Speaks about the development of intelligence - consistent change of logical structures thinking, the ultimate goal of which is the formation of formal logical operations.		Different intelligences, their combination in a person allows people to take on different roles.	I'm not particularly interested in the differences between people, I was more interested in the THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE. He talks about the importance of attention as a resource between important and not important stages of a task. The time that is so actively accounted for in the tests is a cultural trait.

General in concept x: Consider intelligence as the ability to adapt to the environment; Consider the influence of genes and the environment on intelligence (previously there were theories of purely hereditary influence - Galton)

Savenkov A.I.

Social intelligence concept

In recent years, the attention of specialists in the field of the psychology of giftedness and creativity has been attracted by problems previously developed far beyond the boundaries of this industry. The new direction has received the name "research of emotional intelligence". These studies also revived a very old reasoning and research on the problems of social intelligence, begun by Edward Lee Thorndike at the beginning of the 20th century.

From the point of view of the spoken language and the Russian version of the use of psychological terms, the phrase "emotional intelligence", as well as "social intelligence", is extremely unfortunate. The word “intellect” is firmly connected in the minds of psychologists with the cognitive sphere, and the definitions “emotional” and “social” refer to the affective sphere and characterize somewhat different facets of personality development.

However, one can agree with this terminology, accepting it as a certain convention, quite acceptable when creating new terms.
It is likely that the word "intellect" in this case performs a symbolic function. It serves as an identification signal for specialists. If we use traditional concepts and understand “social intelligence” as the diagnosis and development of the affective sphere or psychosocial development of the personality, and instead of “emotional intelligence” talk about emotions, their expression and regulation, then there will be a feeling that specialists in the psychology of giftedness betrayed the problem and left to another sphere. It is the use of the word “intellect” that allows them to stay in the traditional content field and makes it possible to identify “their own” according to the problematic.

The emergence of these seemingly strange phrases is probably due to the fact that the discussion of the problems of emotional and social intelligence was initiated by specialists in the field of giftedness and creativity, who saw high predictive value in these indicators. The question would be closed if it were only in terms. Attention is drawn to the fact that specialists, whose attention was traditionally attracted by the cognitive sphere, suddenly turned sharply to the study of the affective sphere of the personality. Why did this happen?

The reason lies in the fact that the function of the psychology of giftedness includes the function of predicting the development of a personality (in particular, predicting “success in life”), and no matter what definition of giftedness we take - B.M. Teplova, from the "Working concept of giftedness" (Bogoyavlenskaya D.B., Shadrikov V.D. and others) or J. Renzulli, it is easy to see that giftedness is everywhere considered as a potential opportunity for high achievements.

Naturally, the problem of high achievements or "psychology of success in life" has a special cultural twist associated with differences in the mentality of different peoples. This cannot but influence the direction of research in the field of psychology. However, having noted that these differences exist and they are very significant, we will not discuss this problem in more depth. It deserves special consideration.

The question of what makes one person great and outstanding, and another average and imperceptible, has worried both researchers and ordinary people since ancient times. Philosophers of the era of the first European civilizations spoke of the divine predetermination of talent and diligently built speculative theoretical constructions on this matter. In identifying gifted people, it was suggested to rely on divine providence and one's own intuition. The pragmatic 20th century has abandoned such decisions. Scientists began to try to study the phenomenon of genius and the psychology of creativity using "rigorous" scientific methods.

Throughout the 20th century, some psychologists believed that for the successful realization of a personality in life, a high intelligence is needed and from childhood it is necessary to strive to develop it, while others defended the need for the primary identification and development of creativity. And teachers, arguing with both those and others, were inclined to assert that for outstanding achievements, first of all, deep, versatile knowledge is necessary and important.

Now it is no longer a secret for anyone that all these statements are erroneous. To put it more diplomatically, they can be recognized as correct only partially. Everyone knows how important both high natural intelligence and developed creativity are for a winner in the “race for success” in life. Everyone knows what a responsible role deep and versatile knowledge plays in achieving the heights of life. But psychological research at the end of the 20th century convincingly testifies that success in life is not determined by this, it largely depends on completely different personal characteristics.

At the end of the 90s, the voices of psychologists began to sound louder and clearer, claiming that the most important thing for the successful realization of an individual in life and work is the ability to effectively interact with people around him. Such as, for example, the ability to effectively act in the system of interpersonal relations, the ability to navigate in social situations, to correctly determine the personal characteristics and emotional states of other people, to choose adequate ways of communicating with them and to implement all this in the process of interaction. These ideas were generated by specialized research in the areas of emotional and social intelligence.

As a result of these investigations, in modern psychological theories, the potential of the individual is no longer as one-sided as it was done, for example, in the concepts of "intellectual giftedness" or "creative giftedness" popular in the 20th century. In the works of modern psychologists, the idea that by expanding the range of tested personality traits to include emotional sphere personality and the ability for effective interpersonal interaction, we get a much more accurate picture of the mental potential of the individual.

And even more, in a number of special experiments it was found that many children and adults who did not demonstrate high abilities in special tests (intelligence, creativity or academic success), but showed good results in terms of emotional and social development, turn out to be very successful in life and creativity. Moreover, their advantages in achieving success in life are often so great that they are able to provide them not only with a high social status, but even lead them in the future to enrollment in the cohort of outstanding.

On the contrary, 95% of the intellectually gifted, as rightly stated by B.C. Yurkevich, referring to his own research and the work of other authors, notes the difficulties in the functioning of emotional intelligence. B.C. Yurkevich emphasizes that this category of children has “pronounced infantilism in emotional terms”, decreased interest in activities not related to acquiring knowledge, “difficulties in communicating with peers,” etc. ...

According to the American psychologist D. Golman, about 80% of a person's success in life is provided by what can be called non-cognitive factors, including emotional intelligence. For the first time, D. Golman drew attention of researchers and practitioners to the problem of emotional intelligence in the early 90s. Under this unusual phrase, he proposes to understand self-motivation, resistance to disappointment, control over emotional outbursts, the ability to refuse pleasure, regulation of mood and the ability not to let feelings drown out the ability to think, empathize and hope. D. Golman himself did not offer tools for identifying these criteria of emotional intelligence, but other researchers have developed relatively simple and accessible procedures for their measurement and assessment.

R. Bar-On studied this issue in more detail and effectively. He proposes to define emotional intelligence as all non-cognitive abilities, knowledge and competence that give a person the ability to successfully cope with various life situations.
He identifies five areas, each of which marks the most specific skills leading to success. These include:
knowledge of one's own personality (awareness of one's own emotions, self-confidence, self-esteem, self-realization, independence);
interpersonal skills (interpersonal relationships, social responsibility, empathy);
adaptability (problem solving, reality assessment, adaptability);
management of stressful situations (resistance to stress, impulsivity, control);
prevailing mood (happiness, optimism) (Bar-On, 1997, cited in Practical Intellect / Ed. by R. Sternberg. St. Petersburg, 2003, p. 88).

The Russian psychologist D.V. Lyusin. In his interpretation, emotional intelligence is "... the ability to understand and manage their own and others' emotions." At the same time, it is emphasized that the ability to understand and the ability to manage emotions can be directed both to one's own emotions and to the emotions of other people. Thus, the author proposes to consider two variants of emotional intelligence - "intrapersonal" and "interpersonal". Both options, he rightly asserted, involve the actualization of different cognitive processes and skills.

The emotional intelligence model proposed by D.V. Lucin, includes three elements:
cognitive abilities (speed and accuracy of processing emotional information);
ideas about emotions (as values, as an important source of information about oneself and about other people, etc.);
features of emotionality (emotional stability, emotional sensitivity, etc.).

To clarify a number of circumstances and test the idea of ​​a high predictive value of indicators of emotional intelligence, we conducted a series of pilot studies in the experimental gymnasium No. 1882 in Moscow. In the course of the experiment, older preschoolers were asked to perform simple operations to assess the main characteristics of their emotional intelligence.

As the estimated parameters in our pilot study, we used those that were highlighted by the aforementioned authors. For example, the ability to understand (read) the emotions of other people was assessed. For this purpose, the N.Ya. Semago - "emotional faces". The child was required to answer the question of what the faces of the people (children - boys and girls), depicted in the pictures, express. They were presented with images of children whose faces expressed basic emotions (joy, fear, surprise, anger, etc.). Some children easily named the expressed emotion, some did it with a noticeable effort, and some experienced very great difficulties.

In other experiments, we asked children to express their own joy, fear, grief, surprise, anger, and other basic emotions. To assess this ability, the method of expert assessments was used. Each of the psychologists participating in the research closely monitored the accuracy of the expression of emotions and gave his own marks to each child participating in the study.

To test the child's ability to regulate his own desires and emotions, we, following the American psychologists, repeated one curious test. The kid was given candy, but at the same time they asked him not to eat it until the experimenter returned. The experimenter, giving the candy, told the child that he would now leave the room for a short time, but asks him to keep the candy. If it remains intact, the experimenter promised to give the child ten more of these sweets. Then the experimenter left the room, and the video camera watched the child. And some of the children, unable to bear it, immediately devoured the desired candy, and someone, having overcome their momentary desires, patiently waited for the experimenter.

Further, in the course of special observations, we assessed the skills of interpersonal communication, the degree of self-esteem, independence, resistance to stress, the ability to adapt to new conditions. Long-term observations also helped to identify the dominant mood of each of the children participating in the study.

For example, we studied the levels of development of interpersonal skills by observing their manifestation in children's games and a variety of collective works. Resistance and instability to stress was no less vividly manifested by children at the “intellectuals contests” held in our kindergartens, according to a special method. Participation in the competition is stressful for any child, but one is able to cope with it and work effectively, while the other is lost, his productivity drops sharply.

The results of success in these tasks were further compared by us with the success of these children in learning, initially in kindergarten, and then in school. It turned out that those who demonstrated higher scores on these parameters, which are known to be related to emotional intelligence, were indeed more successful in learning. This fact is easily explainable, everyone knows that a person who is able to regulate his own desires, control his own emotional reactions, understand the emotional states of other people, has a lot of advantages over someone who is not able to do this.

In addition, the very ability of verbal expression and evaluation of emotions indicates not only high emotional, but also good general cognitive development of the child. Equally obvious is that emotion and intelligence are closely related. It has long been proven that certain emotions can increase the productivity of the thinking process and direct attention to certain tasks. The ability to adequately express emotions is the key to success in interpersonal communication and any joint activity. And the effective regulation of one's own emotions correlates with such important abilities for interpersonal interaction as empathy and frankness.

The information obtained by biologists is in full agreement with these data. They argue that the more ancient, deeper parts of our brain are responsible for emotions. What we traditionally call intelligence and creativity develops initially on the basis of emotional intelligence, which is why it is so closely related to it. Only on a strong and powerful foundation, which is a well-developed emotional intelligence, will the ability to create successfully develop.

However, a slightly different approach seems to me to be more accurate. Thus, many modern researchers, while sharing the need to study the problem of emotional intelligence, propose to set the problem wider and discuss this problem in a broader context. It is about considering emotional intelligence through the prism of general social abilities as their integral part. Therefore, we should talk about a phenomenon that can more accurately be called "social intelligence", and emotional intelligence should be considered as a part of it.

Unlike emotional intelligence, the study of social intelligence has a long, eventful and rewarding history. According to most experts, the concept of "social intelligence" was introduced by E. Thorndike back in 1920. He viewed social intelligence as "the ability to understand other people and to act or act wisely towards others." Later, these concepts were refined and developed by many researchers.

At different times, supporters of various psychological schools interpreted the concept of "Social intelligence":
as the ability to get along with other people (Moss F. & Hunt T., 1927);
as the ability to deal with others (Hunt T., 1928); knowledge about people (Strang R., 1930);
the ability to easily converge with others, the ability to enter into their position, to put oneself in the place of another (Vernon P.E., 1933);
the ability to critically and correctly assess the feelings, mood and motivation of other people's actions (Wedeck J., 1947).

He predicts that his intelligence model has at least 30 abilities related to social intelligence. Some are about understanding behavior, some about productive thinking about behavior, and some about evaluating it. It is also important that J. Guilford emphasizes that understanding the behavior of other people and oneself is largely non-verbal.
Researchers have always had the task of defining the boundaries of social intelligence. Her solution required separating social intelligence from abstract (IQ) and academic. But work on the creation of methodological tools for measuring social intelligence did not lead to the desired results. As a rule, these attempts have failed.

The main reason, apparently, lies in the fact that the main one in surveys of social intelligence was its verbal assessment. In diagnostic examinations, specialists focused primarily on cognitive characteristics, such as perception of other people, understanding of the motives of their behavior, etc. Moreover, all this was revealed only as a result of verbal measurements, and even the assessment of the behavioral aspects of social intelligence was also carried out using verbal methods (self-report, introspection, etc.).

Meanwhile, it is well known that the verbal assessment of one's own emotional or social sphere and real behavioral characteristics do not always coincide. Therefore, gradually an increasing place in the study of social intelligence began to be occupied by studies based on behavioral, non-verbal methods of assessing social intelligence. S. Kosmit-sky and O.P. John (Kosmitzki S. & John O.R., 1993), proposing the concept of social intelligence, which includes seven components. They assembled these components into two relatively independent groups: "cognitive" and "behavioral".

To the cognitive elements of social intelligence they included the assessment of perspective, understanding of people, knowledge of special rules, openness in relations with others. To the behavioral elements: the ability to deal with people, social adaptability, warmth in interpersonal relationships.

This emphasized the idea that social intelligence is an area where cognitive and affective interact closely. As it is easy to see, this model quite fully reflects the essence of the phenomenon and definitely indicates what is subject to diagnosis and development. Using it, you can develop a diagnostic program and formulate the goals of pedagogical work to develop social intelligence. This model is quite capable of serving as a basis for solving applied problems.

The argumentation of supporters of the opposite approach deserves special attention. So, in the work of the Russian psychologist D.V. Ushakova notes, in particular, that the definition of social intelligence should be limited. “Social intelligence, if we understand it as intelligence,” notes D.V. Ushakov, is the ability to cognize social phenomena, which is only one of the components of social skills and competence, and does not exhaust them. " Only under these conditions, social intelligence, according to D.V. Ushakov, becomes on a par with other types of intelligence, "... forming together with them the ability for a higher type of cognitive activity - generalized and mediated." We can agree with this statement if we set ourselves the task of the purity of the use of the term "intellect", but the desire to solve larger-scale problems associated with the problem of predicting the degree of success of a person at further stages of his development dictates other approaches.

Theoretical models are created to solve applied problems, primarily the problems of diagnosis and development. Therefore, the methods of diagnosing social intelligence used by different authors well illustrate their understanding of the essence of this phenomenon.

One of the first special measuring instruments aimed at solving this problem should be considered the George Washington test - GWSIT. It included a series of subtests evaluating critical decisions in social situations. The tasks included in the test determine the mental state of a person after completing the tasks, assess memory for names and faces, determine human behavior and a sense of humor. This test has not been used in our country.

In the studies of R.I. Riggio (Riggio R.E., 1991) when testing social intelligence, it was proposed to assess it according to six social skills: emotional expressiveness, emotional sensitivity, emotional control, social expressiveness and social control. This author also used a test for hidden ethical skills (when knowledge of correct behavior in social situations is assessed). It is easy to see that R.I. Riggio suggests calling social intelligence what many call emotional intelligence. This is certainly no coincidence, their inextricable connection is obvious.

An interesting term was suggested by the American researcher F.S. Chapin (Chapin F.S., 1967) - "social intuition". Especially valuable is the fact that he offered a test for her assessment. The subjects were asked to read about problem situations and choose, in their opinion, the best description of each situation out of four alternative ones.

R. Rosenthal (Rosenthal R., 1979) and his colleagues have developed a test they call the "profile of non-verbal sensitivity (PONS)". The subjects were shown an image of the same woman, but in different situations. They were asked to decipher the hidden information that they see in the presented picture, and from two alternative descriptions of the situation, choose the one that, in their opinion, better characterizes what they saw or heard.

A successful attempt to develop an alternative PONS test was undertaken by D. Archer and P.M. Akert (Archer D. & Akert R.M., 1980). They called their methodology the Social Interpretation Test (SIT). The subjects were offered visual and audible information about a situation. For example, they see a picture of a woman talking on the phone and hear part of the conversation. They are then asked to rate whether the woman is speaking to another woman or to a man. Another task: to assess whether the women in the picture know each other. Whether they are good friends or just acquaintances. When testing using SIT, attention was paid to the conclusions made by the subjects based on verbal versions of non-verbal information.

Using this test (SIT), R. Sternberg and J. Smith developed a technique they called "a method for determining deciphered knowledge." They offered test subjects two types of photographs. For example, one showed a man and a woman. Their posture indicated that they were in a very close relationship. Those who took part in the survey were asked to say whether these people are really connected by family relationships, or only play a role. Other photographs showed the mentor and his subordinate. The subjects were asked to say which of the two was the mentor. The researchers concluded that the ability to accurately decipher non-verbal information is one of the important indicators of social intelligence.

Of particular interest is the idea of ​​K. Jones and J. D. Day (Jones K. & Day J.D. 1997). They suggested focusing on another important issue. Their work presents the relationship between two characteristic factors of social intelligence: "crystallized social knowledge" (declarative and experiential knowledge of well-known social events) and "social-cognitive flexibility" (the ability to apply social knowledge to solve unknown problems).
R. Cantor and R. Harlow (Cantor N. & Harlow R., 1994), having drawn attention to the transitional periods in human life, were able to find a way to assess individual differences in the definition of life tasks by people. These researchers, in particular, were interested in the transition from college to high school. They found that people formulate action plans, track their development, evaluate the results of their own activities, refer to their biographical pa-; to understand the different reasons that led to the achievement of the results obtained, and alternative actions that were possible. When the fulfillment of a life task is faced with serious difficulties, people must reconsider their plans or outline new ones for themselves.

It is obvious that the integration of the solutions presented above can provide a general idea of ​​what should be considered social intelligence. From this point of view, the characteristic of the structural features of social intelligence given by D.V. Ushakov. Social intelligence, in his fair statement, has a number of the following characteristic structural features:
“Continual character;
using non-verbal representation;
loss of accurate social assessment during verbalization;
formation in the process of social learning;
using "internal" experience. "

It can probably be argued that the separation of emotional intelligence and social intelligence is counterproductive. Emotional intelligence may well be viewed as an element of social intelligence. Also, two factors of social intelligence can be distinguished.

The first is “crystallized social knowledge”. This refers to declarative and empirical knowledge about well-known social events. In this case, declarative knowledge should be understood as knowledge obtained as a result of social learning, and by experienced knowledge, the knowledge gained in the course of one's own research practice.

The second is social cognitive flexibility. It is about the ability to apply social knowledge to solve unknown problems. Everyone knows that it is very important to "know" about something, but knowledge itself should not be confused with the willingness and ability to apply it.

Characterizing the concept of social intelligence, we can distinguish three groups that describe its criteria: cognitive, emotional and behavioral. In essence, each of these groups can be represented as follows:
1.Cognitive:
social knowledge - knowledge about people, knowledge of special rules, understanding of other people;
social memory - memory for names, faces;
social intuition - assessment of feelings, determination of mood, understanding of the motives of other people's actions, the ability to adequately perceive the observed behavior within the social context;
social forecasting - formulating plans for one's own actions, tracking one's own development, reflecting on one's own development and assessing unused alternative opportunities.
2. Emotional:
social expressiveness - emotional expressiveness, emotional sensitivity, emotional control;
empathy - the ability to enter into the position of other people, to put oneself in the place of another (to overcome communicative and moral egocentrism);
the ability to self-regulation - the ability to regulate your own emotions and your own mood.
3. Behavioral:
social perception - the ability to listen to the interlocutor, understanding of humor;
social interaction - the ability and willingness to work together, the ability for collective interaction and, as the highest type of this interaction - collective creativity;
social adaptation - the ability to explain and convince others, the ability to get along with other people, openness in relations with others.

Using the selected criteria, it is quite possible to develop procedures for identifying and quantifying each of the designated parameters of social intelligence. It is especially important that this concept of social intelligence, fully reflecting its components, is capable of serving as a general program for its development in educational activities. The effectiveness of this model is currently being tested in our empirical studies.

Bibliography
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2. Lyusin D.V. Modern concepts of emotional intelligence // Social intelligence. Theory, measurement, research / Ed. D.V. Ushakova, D.V. Lyusina, Moscow, 2004, pp. 29-39.
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answers to the special course D.V. Ushakova "Modern theories of intelligence

Department of General Psychology

1.1. The main provisions of Piaget's theory

Scheme are structures responsible for performing a number of similar actions. A Piagetan example of a scheme is grasping, which can consist of very different finger movements depending on the shape and size of the object being grasped. Grabbing a finger of an adult or a rattle by a child includes various movements, but is included in one scheme of actions, i.e. these actions have the same meaning.

Schemes for different ages people have qualitative differences.

Early circuits are quickly modified. Subsequently, representative schemes are formed.

Although Piaget systematically discussed the problem of schemas only in relation to sensorimotor intelligence, he extended this concept to representative intelligence as well. For example, you can talk about a scheme for adding prime numbers. Adding 4 and 3 or adding 5 to 2 are related actions.

Schemes are formed through motor interaction with the environment and undergo a series of transformations. Piaget suggested that there are innate principles that ensure this process.

The most important principles are organization and adaptation.

Organization - it is a pre-disposition of a combination of simple physical and mental structures into more complex ones. Thus, simple reflexes of sucking, grasping, and oculomotor reflexes are gradually organized into a system of a higher order, which ensures their coordination. After organizing these reflexes into a pattern, the infant can look at the object, grab it and pull it into the mouth to suck.

Adaptation includes two processes: assimilation and accommodation. These two processes interact to modify the child's existing schemas.

When a child meets a new experience, he assimilates it into the existing circuit.

Accommodation is the adaptation of the circuit to the new experience.

1.2. Methods for the experimental selection of components in problem solving processes (E. Hunt, R. Sternberg).

Search for the cognitive processes behind IQ.

E. Hunt developed a cognitive correlation method - a way to empirically test hypotheses about the components of information processing included in intellectual processes by timing the solution of problems that are similar to each other in some parts of the solution and different in others, and by comparing them with indicators on intelligence tests.

Schematically: the time for solving problems is compared where there are both blocks and only one of them - the difference is considered the execution time of the excluded block.

The problem of Posner and Mitchell: comparison of time to compare the similarity of the letters AA, Aa, AB, Ab with tz. names or physical characteristics. Hunt moved this task to the area of ​​individual differences and compared the results of the subjects (the difference between the time of recognition of physical and lexical similarities) with their indicators of verbal intelligence. Got a correlation of 0.3.

Sternberg: Cognitive Component Approach - Analysis of the Test Execution Process. Analyzed the solution of linear syllogisms to test the models used by the subjects: spatial, verbal or mixed.

decoding (translation of a stimulus into an internal mental representation in the form of an unfolding of the meaning of the main words);

inference (finding a possible connection);

comparison (finding a rule);

verification (clarification of correctness);

constructing a response

For example, the comparison of distant elements of a decreasing series will take longer than those of the close ones if the representation is verbal and faster if it is spatial.

The time spent by the subjects on the solution process was distributed as follows: 54% - decoding, 12% - inference, 10% - comparison, 7% - verification, and 17% - answer. Thus, the phase of building a mental representation, judging by the amount of time spent, plays a special role in organizing the process of finding a solution. Subjects with higher scores on intelligence tests were faster in the last four phases, but slower in the decoding phase.

2.1.Phenomena of attention in creative thinking (J. Mendelssohn). Explanation from the standpoint of network models (K. Martindale). Mendelssohn (breadth of attention).

Creative people are more sensitive to peripheral cues. An experiment was set up: lists of words to memorize and words to which they asked not to pay attention were presented audibly (dichotically). Next, it was necessary to compose three types of anagrams, the words were the key:

from the list to remember

those words on the cat. didn't need to pay attention

new words

And then they were tested for creativity. Creative people have the most anagrams of all types, the greatest difference among creative people compared to less creative people is the difference in the number of anagrams from the second list. Consequently, creatives have a wider field of attention, higher sensitivity to the periphery.

Martindale(network model).

Semantic networks. Focusing on a narrow circle of associations, or on the central area of ​​attention (logic). A creative person is able to switch from the center to the periphery and not get stuck (logic is in the center, and intuition is on the periphery). Holfield nets mimic the processes associated with the annealing of metals (in physics). Stacking of the molecules that make up the metal: they produce the movement of molecules, thus, the irregularities are reduced (only external changes). t - some activity not related to the main position in the network, but only removes the defect. There are two minimums: absolute (lowest) and local. A person, fixing himself on the elements of the problem, falls into a local minimum, and due to random fluctuations, he can find himself in an absolute one. So, warming up allows the ball to jump from a local minimum to an absolute one.

High activation of the brain during problem solving is associated with the concentration of the secondary (logic) zone, the decrease in activation occurs at the periphery. An experiment was carried out on the ability to switch in high and low creative when solving problems. They solved two types of problems. Low-creative ones solved both tasks at the same high level of brain activation, and highly creative ones solved one problem as well, and the other more creative, switching, solved already at a low level of activation.

2.2. The volume of working memory as a factor explaining individual differences in intelligence (P. Killonen).

One-factor explanation of intelligence.

Working memory is a mechanism involved in all processes associated with thinking, while other cognitive mechanisms are more localized.

Test:

The subject was required to add two two-digit numbers and memorize the result. Then they looked at how many people remembered. The results of this test correlate strongly with the results of intelligence tests.

Criticism: it is not the dependence of intelligence on working memory that is compared, but intelligence with intelligence. For people with the best intellectual abilities carry out additions more compactly (and working memory is used to add and store the results of previous additions).

3.1 Thinking and intelligence: definition, general and different in two concepts.

Intelligence can be correlated with intelligence (an ability that develops with age), and thinking with deliberation (as a process).

Intelligence is the ability to think. Intelligence is realized in thinking.

Definitions of thinking:

Thinking is defined as the solution to problems. But problem solving is broader than thinking (for example, how to get a piano up to the 5th floor). So that thinking - it is rather an indirect and generalized knowledge of objective reality (Rubinstein).

The main research problems:

Intelligence development

Functioning of thinking

Individual characteristics of intelligence

3.2 Creativity and emotions. Tikhomirov.

Problems with chess, KGR.

Dependence of the type of emotions and the type of tasks.

Aizen: positive emotions help creative thinking. They expand attention, emotions are a way of activating the content of memory. Experiment: take into account the initial mood when the person came. Think about events, word lists, movies (for mood changes). Then they give a task with a candle, which must be attached to the door with the help of a box, buttons. 2 difficulty levels: all individually and all in boxes. With negative emotions, they do not solve the problem or only an easy option.

Kaufman: in some cases, emotions help. They change the threshold of satisfaction with the decision. Experiment (Martin): injected into a certain state (mood), asked to generate the names of animals (1. As long as it gives pleasure; 2. Until it seems sufficient). Different emotions improved different tasks. With + emotions, people quit faster, they got bored and satisfied with their names. And with - they believed that they gave little and felt dissatisfaction for a longer time, they continued. That. if you need to get a satisfactory answer, then + emotions are better, and if the optimal one, then -.

Abele: with –emotions, they generate more positive responses to create a neutral state. Experiment:

Two tasks:

Or neutral (come up with ways to use an empty bottle and rope)

- (consider the implications if people can read minds)

Those who are able are actively generating + responses.

Lubort: influence of affect on verbal and non-verbal creativity. Tasks for divergent thinking, verbal thinking, Thorens test.

Groups :. +, - and neutral state

Verbal M. grows with + emotions

Non-verbal with + and - emotions.

Difficulties encountered by the theory of J. Piaget.

Intelligence and thinking in modern psychology are considered in three main planes:

development of intelligence,

functioning of thinking processes

individual characteristics of intelligence.

Problem decal

So, the analysis leads to the conclusion that the reason for the difficulties of Piagetanism (at least one of the reasons) were idealizations and abstractions, which cut off aspects related to its functioning and individual differences from the description of the ontogeny of intelligence.

Criticism, unfolding against Piaget's theory since the mid-1960s, has been able to show that, under certain conditions, children are able to solve Piaget-type problems much earlier than Piaget believed.

Criticism of the concept of animism children's thinking is that Piaget used in dialogues such objects as the sun, moon, wind, which often have fairytale and magical interpretations. In the experiments of Mezi and Gelman, it was shown that if simple and familiar objects were used for comparison, then children under four years old well distinguished living objects, such as mammals, from non-living, figurines. Even children of three years of age distinguished the movement of the cart from the movement of an animal, and a stuffed animal from the animal itself.

Criticism of egocentrism children's thinking was aimed at the inadequacy and abstraction of the questions and tasks that Piaget used. M. Donaldson (1988), and then P. Light and M. Segal suggested that children's mistakes in logical problem solving are no longer related to their limitations in understanding issues, but to the abstractness, abstraction of these tasks, which have no social context.

In the tasks of Margaret Donaldson, the child had to hide the boy's doll, first from one, and then from two police officers. In this task, children of 3.5 years old gave 90% of the correct answers.

Cox offered the children the same problem as Piaget, but only objects of different sizes were placed on the table - a jug, a bottle and a glass. Children chose the type of objects that made it possible to see them all at the same time, and rejected those views in which one object overlapped another, interfering with their perception.

Criticism of conservation phenomena has been undertaken in many studies. The authors did not agree that preschool children do not have the concept of conservation and act based more on external impressions, and not on an internal understanding of the essence of the relationship between different aspects. physical phenomena... For example, the process of transfusing liquid from one vessel to another in front of a child's eyes, according to Piaget, leads to errors in conclusions, since the apparent level of the liquid changes, which prevents the understanding of volume preservation.

Is it possible to form an idea of ​​preservation in children and "remove" Piaget's phenomena? Jerome Bruner (1977) modified Piaget's experiments. Children were offered a problem with glasses of water. First, they compared the amount of water in two vessels and established its equality. Then the vessels were covered with a screen and the children were asked: “Will the number of

water if it is poured into another wider vessel? " Most children 4-5 years old answered that the same amount of water would remain. The experimenter poured water into another wider vessel and removed the screen. Now the children saw that the levels of fluid in the vessels were different. Most of the children believed that there was less water. Interpreting the results of the experiments, Bruner pointed out that theoretically children know that the amount of water does not change. But each property of a thing for a child is his characteristic as a whole. The liquid level becomes a measure of the quantity. Perception and visual characteristics lead to erroneous interpretations of a change in the visible signs of a thing as a change in identity: one parameter changes - the whole thing changes.

Difficulty distinguishing between appearance and reality. Using examples of animistic thinking, Piaget proved that children rely on the appearance of things, and not on what they really are. Recent work has challenged Piaget's views. Since perception specifies the real world, the developing child depends on what is perceived and how the store of knowledge is accumulated. However, appearances can be deceiving. The question Piaget asks is whether the child is able to understand the possibility that perception can be confusing, or whether he accepts everything perceived as real.

J. Flavell and colleagues conducted a study in which children were shown a piece of sponge painted very realistically to look like a stone. The children were given the opportunity to squeeze the "rock" and discover that it was really a sponge.

Children of four years old were able to separate appearance and reality. They replied that it was actually a sponge, but it looked like a stone.

M. Sigal also proved that preschool children can distinguish between appearance and reality, demonstrating knowledge of the hidden causes of infectious diseases. In his experiments, he showed children 4 years 11 months old a glass of milk with a dirty comb or a dead cockroach floating on the surface. The children replied that they would not drink milk even if a cockroach or a comb was removed from it. The children demonstrated the ability to distinguish between appearance and reality, because even after removing the infectious agent from the milk, it remains infected, although it looks intact.

Is it possible to discover or develop the ability to classify and serialize in children to the stage of specific operations. These disputes are due to the fact that this question is of paramount importance for pedagogical practice: is it possible to teach children counting earlier and how?

A large number of empirical studies have been devoted to this issue. Serialization presupposes an understanding of positional relationships in time and space. Mastering the logic of serialization opens up the possibility for performing transitive inference, a logical operation that allows one to relate objects, not directly, but indirectly, using a third object.

Piaget believed that only children at the stage of specific operations are capable of transitive inferences, before they do not understand the logical connection between A and WITH.

P. Bryant and Trabasso (after: [Butterworth, Harris, 2000]) showed that even four-year-old children can solve some types of transitive inference problems. Bryant and Trabasso believe that even such young children are capable of transitive inferences, and their difficulties lie in the area of ​​limitations of memorization, which masks their ability to think logically. Other studies by Bryant have shown convincingly that children can make transitive inferences based on indirect comparison of values ​​(for example, they compared the depth of holes with a stick with marks), which ruled out the analogies given by Russell.

Unconscious components in creativity. Logic and intuition.

Cognitive processes are also involved in creativity, but in a different way. Intuition pushes logic aside, because logic works in unchanging situations, and creativity is new.

Intuitive experience is formed against the will of the subject and outside the field of his attention; it cannot be voluntarily actualized by the subject and manifests itself only in action.

In a well-realized logical mode, people do not have access to their intuitive experience. If they rely on intuitive experience, they cannot exercise conscious control and reflection of their actions. If the panel is flipped 180 degrees, but the maze is not, the effect disappears.

Implicit (non-selective)

1. Explicit (selective)

The theory of stages of development of intelligence and its criticism.

According to Piaget, in the development of human intelligence, one can conditionally distinguish

4 main periods of development:

stage of sensorimotor intelligence(from birth to 2 years old);

Sensomotor intelligence is called intelligence, which unfolds in actions with external objects. Piaget contrasted him with a representative intellect associated with the operation of mental entities - images, words, symbols.
At the sensorimotor stage of development, which includes six substages, the child's intelligence undergoes tremendous changes.

Substages 1. Reflexes (from birth to 6 weeks). The baby's connection with the world is carried out with the help of reflexes, for example, sucking, grasping, oculomotor.

Substage 2. Primary circular reactions (6 weeks - 4 months). First skills such as thumb sucking, head turning to sound.

Substage 3. Secondary circular reactions (4-8 months). Purposeful behavior, such as visually controlled reaching for an object.

Substage 4. Coordinated secondary circular reactions (8-12 months). The emergence of intentional, purposeful behavior; actions direction and meaning matter; the appearance of imitation, gestures and words. The beginning of practical intelligence.

Substage 5. Tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months). This is the last "purely" sensorimotor stage, characterized by the presence of an idea of ​​the object; development of symbolic functions. The child can change the usual patterns, guided by the principle "let's see what happens."

Substage 6. Representation (18-24 months). Ability to symbolize, imitate; attempts at symbolic games.
Development of search behavior at the sensorimotor stage

	Search behavior
	No visual and manual search
	Finding a partially hidden object
	Finding a completely hidden object
	Search after visible object movements
	Search after hidden object movements

preoperative stage(from 2 to 7 years old);

A child enters a new period of development when he masters speech. For the development of intelligence, a new field opens up - not only actions with external objects, but also the area of ​​the internal: words, images, symbols. The intelligence that develops in this open area is what Piaget calls representative or symbolic. By the age of seven, specific operations take shape in the representational intelligence.

Piaget called the period from the beginning of the representative stage to the appearance of operations preoperative - two sub-periods:

• Preconceptual (2-4 years)
  the rapid development of symbolic functions, expressed in the development of language, imagination, the ability to act "for fun."

Intuitive (4-7 years old).
the child is able to perform mental operations (classifications, quantitative comparison of objects) intuitively, without realizing the principles that he uses.

2 features of children's thinking that significantly limit mental operations at the stage of preoperative intelligence:

egocentrism children's thinking and

animism(animation of inanimate nature).

Limitations of thinking are also found in tasks. classification(us-

class-subclass relationship).

Formed preservation.

Syncretism - disregard of objective information in favor of subjective (conservation tasks).

Transduction- this is inference from single to single. V. Stern pointed out the transduction of thinking in preschool children. Due to egocentrism, the child does not feel the need for proof. Transduction is a mental experience that is not accompanied by an experience of logic. The reason for transduction, as Piaget pointed out, is the impossibility of understanding mental operations, the inability of children to introspection.

stage of specific operations(from 7 to 11 years old)

cardinal changes are taking place:

the centralization and egocentrism of thinking decrease;

the ability to understand the conservation of quantity, mass, volume is developing;

the concept of time and space is being formed;

the possibilities of classification and serialization are growing, and much more.

stage of formal operations(from 11 to 15 years old).

The transition from the stage of concrete operations to formal ones is marked by the hierarchical coordination of two logical forms of thought reversibility. This identity-negation (identity (I)-negation (Nj) and reciprocity-correlation, or denial of reciprocity (reciprocal (R) -correlative (C)), which appear separately at the stage of specific operations. These operations are hierarchically integrated into a common internally related logical structure called the INRC group.

The main result of this stage is the integration of thinking systems, which allows solving the problem, distracting from the directly perceived reality, with less dependence on the context, relying on more systemic and formal foundations.

Logical and abstract thinking develops, allowing one to enter hypothetical spaces, create non-existent worlds, and find essential patterns. In the behavior of a teenager, exercise in hypothetical thinking is expressed in the tendency of abstract and global reasoning, the development of abstract worldview concepts.

5.2. The structure of intelligence, general and special factors.

Concept structures of intelligence(SI) - central in the field of individual characteristics of intelligence.

The structure of intelligence		Intelligent structures
from English structure of intelligence		from fr. structures intellectuelles
from the field of psychology of individual differences of intelligence (D. Guildford)		from the sphere of ontogeny of intelligence (J. Piaget)
NOT plural. number of		designed for pl. the numbers

2 SI analysis plans:

a) phenomenal (taken by the structural-dynamic approach):

SI - relations of similarity and difference, given on the set of all possible situations of intellectual behavior =>

describe SI = set the field of all possible variations in individual differences in intelligence: recognition of the high probability of some patterns of intellectual behavior and the impossibility of others

PERSPECTIVE: the ability to predict a successful one or another individual in a particular activity

b) ontological (NOT accepted by the structural-dynamic approach):

SI - the structure of mechanisms that carry out various forms of intellectual behavior

PERSPECTIVE: an opportunity to identify the interconnections of the mechanisms of intellectual behavior

Criticism analysis of individual differences based on the concept of SI: ignoring the problem of development =>

Structural-dynamic approach:

a) the SI explanation does NOT lie at the same point in the time axis where the structure of the individual's intelligence is fixed, but throughout the entire previous period of its development =>

b) there are both external (environmental conditions) and internal determinants of the development of intelligence

FactorG:

	AGAINST
K. Spearman(1927): types of factors: factorG(from general - general) - a single factor that determines the success of solving all problems (its role is greatest in solving mathematical problems and problems for conceptual thinking) intermediate factors: numerical, spatial and verbal factorsS(from special - special) - special abilities (their role is most significant in sensorimotor tests)	L. Thurstone: denial of the presence of factor G => 12 independent abilities determining the success of intellectual activity (verbal comprehension, speech fluency, numerical factor, spatial factor, associative memory, speed of perception, inductive factor, etc.)
gradual transformation of single factor models into hierarchical(single G-factor - group factors - special factors)	D. Guilford (1965): "Cubic" model(3 main categories that define abilities): operations(cognition, memory, divergent thinking, convergent thinking, evaluation) products(elements, classes, relationships, systems, transformations, foresight) => allocation of 120 - 150 types of tasks, each of which corresponds to a specific ability
R. Cattell: hierarchical model (3 levels) 2 G-factors: factor free (fluid) intelligence factor related (crystallized) intelligence partial factors (visualization) factors of operations
F. Vernon: 4 levels (group factors - the main(verbal-educational and practical-technical) and minor)
D. Veksler: 3 levels (group factors - verbal and non-verbal)

Main points of disagreement:

a) presence or absence of a common factor

2 problems:

1.non-proof of the existence of the G-factor by empirical data

2.interpretation of the G-factor:

a) rotation of factors => change in the interpretation of all data => great importance of the processing method

b) recognition of the first factor as general - when explaining what% of the variance? => arbitrariness of the criterion

b) list of main (subject to non-recognition of a common factor) / group (if recognized) factors

Possible mechanisms behind the G-factor:

And his conditioningstructural element, A "block" of the cognitive system involved in solving any mental task

Problems:

1. What structure can play the role of a G block?

2.the idea of ​​the G block leads to predictions that are not supported by the facts

b) D. Detterman: G-factor - the average result of the functioning of 5-6 components, which in different combinations are involved in solving problems that make up intelligence tests

6.1. The volume of consciousness (operative memory) and the development of intelligence (H. Pascual-Leone).

Pascual-Leone: development is happening by increasing the volume of the intelligent operator.

The cognitive system consists of 2 main parts

- set of schemes of various kinds. In essence, schemes are considered as mental operations that a person is capable of performing, as well as the ideas he has developed about the world around him, so problems are solved on their basis.

- operator system

functions responsible for the amount of information that the subject is able to represent and process in a certain short period of time, as well as for the style and method of information processing.

M-operator (working memory, the number of circuits that a person is able to hold at the same time, solving a problem). On average, for 2 years - 1 extra. volume element.

I-operator(rejection of irrelevant schemes). F-I ind. differences. Allows M to work.

F-operator(field operator). Activation of those schemes that form a pregnant figure.

L-operator responsible for implicit learning.

The LM operator is responsible for the speed of learning.

An experiment with a gizmo, in which you had to scroll the knob all the way and press the button that was just below. This is for a while. Accordingly, in 3-4 year olds it is the largest, then it gradually decreases by the age of 11 (1 scheme in two years, as ordered). (diagrams: turn quickly, release the handle, localize the button, release the handle in advance).

the concept of the M-operator, somewhat modernizing the concept of working memory, acts as an explanatory principle of cognitive growth. The introduction of additional operators (I, L, F, etc.) allows us to explain individual differences, including such cognitive styles as field dependence-field independence

Psychogenetics of intelligence: facts and interpretations.

Data on heritability of intelligence: 40 to 80%.

Contribution of genetic factors: if conditions are diverse, then the contribution of the environment will be much greater. But if the conditions are approximately the same, then heredity begins to play a role. And vice versa: in a genetically homogeneous community, the influence of the environment will be more prominent, and in a heterogeneous community - genetics (for example, a chimpanzee will still not be smarter than a person).

So the high heritability numbers speak more about the homogeneity of the environmental conditions for the sample.

The intelligence of adopted children correlates with the intelligence of their biological parents, but not that of adopted children, but on average turns out to be much higher than that of biological parents (due to favorable conditions).

Heritability manifests itself more with age: the correlations of the intelligence of infants are 0.2, and that of the elderly is 0.7.

General intelligence is inherited more than special abilities.

Genetic nature of racial and class differences reaching one standard deviation

The estimate of heritability for twins raised separately is higher than the estimate of heritability obtained for those raised together (the twins, regardless of the time of their separation, had a common environment during intrauterine development). Confirmation: Dizygotic twins have a higher phenotypic similarity in intelligence than siblings with the same genetic similarity.

Greater heritability of verbal intelligence (the number of children in the family and the intervals in their births more affect verbal intelligence than non-verbal intelligence; twins correlate less in non-verbal intelligence with their other brothers than they do with each other). Verbal intelligence is influenced to a greater extent by the social environment, while non-verbal intelligence is affected by the non-social environment.

The main approaches to the study of intelligence. The concept of representation. Types of representation, methods of their empirical analysis.

The basis of thinking is the construction of a representation of a problem situation, the question arises: in what relation are there different kinds thinking (verbal, numerical, spatial, etc.), whether they are based on different or the same representations.

Representations are relatively interchangeable: what can be represented in one form can be basically represented in another (Cartesian coordinates)

Propositional representation can claim the role of a universal code. Propositional representation, i.e. the representation of some objects in the form of sentences is, therefore, a linguistic representation.

representation in a propositional form using the two-place predicate "To be more". Our representation will then consist of four propositions: “To be more ( A, B) "; "To be more ( B, C) "; "To be more ( C, D) "; "To be more ( D, E)»

can we figure out what kind of representation of events the subject creates when solving a problem?

sticks of different lengths and colors. Trabasso presented them in pairs in the windows, only their colors are visible, but not their length. The closest in length were shown: A and V, V and WITH etc. After that, the subject was told which of the sticks was longer. After the subject learned the ratios of the lengths of adjacent sticks, he was asked about the unlearned ratios of the lengths of the sticks, for example, A and WITH, V and E etc. The dependent variable is reaction time. What kind of representation do the subjects create? If it is propositional, then to make a judgment about the ratio of the lengths of the sticks A and E you need to take three steps ( A more V

and V more WITH, hence, A more WITH; A more WITH and WITH more D, hence A more D etc.). For comparison, let's say V and D only one step is required, which therefore should take much less time.

The type of representation is a characteristic of the operations that it allows. In the case of rods, propositional representation allows inference operations, and spatial representation allows length comparison.

The results of Trabasso's experiments provided an unambiguous confirmation of the hypothesis of spatial representation: the reaction time decreased with an increase in the difference in the size of the sticks.

D.K.Simonton's theory of scientific creativity.

Investigated the creative career of chess players. I got a graph like this:

E the same is true for the productivity of scientists.

Explanation:

ideation (selection of ideas) - the process of the random formation of an idea as a result of the constellation of counter concepts (=> the bestiality of the formation of ideas is proportional to the volume of cultural concepts)

development of ideas

The number of learned concepts is growing, and the possibility of developing them grows non-linearly as a factorial. But there is a scooping up of concepts and at some point the issuance of ideas occurs faster than the formation of a new one. As a result, a pattern is obtained as in the graph. Which turned out to be true.

I don’t understand what it has to do with it, but it was in the same lecture: Price's Law: half of the creative product is produced by √n community members.

Trends in the psychology of the development of intelligence after J. Piaget.

problem decal - the non-simultaneity of the appearance of functions in ontogenesis, which are estimated by the theory as structurally identical (due to the irreducibility of the object to its cut in time and space). Piaget was able to respond to some criticism (for example, that pseudo-preservation was formed in children, and not real), but Trabasso's experiment could not be refuted (that the serialization may not be based at all on a sequential analysis of asymmetric transitive relations - through the timing of comparison of near and far sticks in a row - spatial, not verbal representation works).

Research on the development and functioning of intelligence. Attempts to integrate: H. Pascual-Leone: development occurs due to an increase in the volume of an intelligent operator (1 operator in 2 years), Case linked development with the growth of cognitive automation

Individual differences and the functioning of intelligence: interchangeable processes in solving problems (for example, who uses which representation is more convenient, that one uses), cognitive styles.

Building local models of individual functions. "Children's theory of the structure of the world"

Ponomarev's concept Stages-Levels-Stages. The stages of ontogenetic development of thinking are imprinted as the structural levels of its mechanism and are manifested in the form of steps for solving problems.

Structural-dynamic approach: the structure of intelligence can be consistently described only in relation to its dynamics. The study of individual differences in intelligence in their development, to investigate the development of intelligence in its individual characteristics. Even the influences of the environment throughout development.

9.1 The structure of intelligence and its explanation: cognitive interpretation.

Carroll suggested that a small number of cognitive processes underlie the results of intelligence tests. I identified 10 types of cognitive components (there are many of them, you still can't learn).

Brown identified 5 metacomponents:

Planning strategy implementation

Control the effectiveness of her steps

testing strategies in relation to the current task

revision strategies if necessary

appraisal strategy in general.

Allocation of components in solving the problem. But there can be infinitely many of them, and ultimately, each theory will be a theory for solving one problem.

Sternberg & Gardner: The overall trend (when summing the components) correlates with intelligence more strongly than the individual components.

9.2. Processes of solving problems for reasoning. F. Johnson-Laird's theory of mental models.

His theory instead of the so-called Mental Logic. Everything there was based on the fact that a person has logical systems in his head - if p, then q. And they are automatically deduced when there is a shortage of p or q.

Johnson-Laird's Criticism: Why, Then, Are People Wrong? How logical systems are assimilated (to have inductive learning - you need logic). Why are some tasks more difficult than others?

People do not operate with propositional representations, but with mental models.

Johnson-Laird developed a theory showing how humans solve syllogisms using mental model representations.

Take the following syllogism:

Some scientists are parents.

All parents are drivers.

scientist= parent

scientist = parent

(scientist) (parent)

According to the notation used here, following the example of Johnson-Laird, parentheses indicate that there are scientists who are not parents, and vice versa.

Second premise:

scientist= parent = driver

scientist = parent = driver

(scientist) (parent = driver) (driver)

Euler's circles are not acc. isomorphism requirements.

All beekeepers are chemists.

Are some artists beekeepers?

(a type YOU IN)

Johnson-Laird records the time the subjects solve the problem and the percentage of errors they make. Experiments carried out by Johnson-Laird confirm the differences predicted by the theory.

Interesting - the order of output acc. as a rule, the procedure for entering information into the slave. memory. Nectr. Scientists are drivers, not nectars. drivers are scientists.

10.1 Psychophysiological correlates of intelligence.

MRI - magnetic resonance imaging

2 types of MRI:

Structural (Brain volume and intelligence have a 0.4 correlation)

Functional

PAT: positron emission tomography allows you to assess the intensity of metabolic processes.

A highly intelligent brain has a higher efficiency, therefore it spends less energy.

EEG: background and evoked potentials.

The frequency of the alpha rhythm is associated with intelligence.

2 x-ki of evoked potentials associated with intelligence.

1) extinction. The faster the potential dies out, the higher the intelligence.

Experiments with babies: a response to novelty. The babies were presented with two pictures. Then again 2 pictures - one of which was already familiar, and the other new. The time of viewing the pictures was fixed: which baby would look longer? Interest in novelty is a predictor of high intelligence at an older age.

2) string measure- measurement of the wavelength of the alpha-rhythm wave pattern - the longer the wavelength, the higher the intelligence. In highly intelligent people, the waveform is more uniform in the samples => they fold well and give a pronounced peak of the alpha rhythm.

Localization: according to MRI, the frontal lobes are slightly more associated with intelligence (not very much).

10.2. Structural-dynamic theory of intelligence and the phenomena explained by it.

Basic concepts

Thinking

General factor

Capabilities

Potential

Cognitive correlations

Environmental correlations

11.1. Implicit and explicit knowledge in problem solving. Intuition in thinking.

The scheme of the experiment: the "Polytype panel" task, where they were required to put on a series of strips on the panel according to certain rules. The shape of the final arrangement of the planks on the panel was a by-product of the action. Then - the passage of the labyrinth, the path in which repeated the contour of the panel. Under normal conditions, passing the labyrinth, the subject made 70 - 80 mistakes, then after solving the Panel problem. - no more than 8 - 10.

In a well-realized logical mode, people do not have access to their intuitive experience. If they rely on intuitive experience, they cannot exercise conscious control and reflection of their actions. If the panel is flipped 180 degrees, but the maze is not, the effect disappears.

In the course of our activity, not only a conscious, but also a special intuitive experience develops, which includes something that is not connected with the purpose of the action and for this reason is not in the field of our attention.

Berry and Broadbent - two types of training

Implicit (non-selective) - S is guided by many variables at once and fixes connections between them (not generalized). learning knowledge is non-verbal, can be used to build an action, but not for verbal responses.

1. Explicit (selective) learning - S takes into account. a limited number of variables, generalized relations are established. Verbal form of representation.

Implicit knowledge. For Ponomarev, the condition for generating this knowledge is the presence of a by-product of an action, for Broadbent it is the presence in the task of a connection between variables, which is outside the subject's field of attention. Implicit knowledge is formed only in action.

For Broadbent, the functioning of explicit and implicit knowledge is not antagonistic. Ponomarev viewed the logical and the intuitive as two poles, when one mechanism works, the other does not.

11.2 Cognitive processes underlying intelligence. The theory of a unified process.

It could be assumed that behind the general factor of intelligence there is a single mechanism, which determines the correlation of various mental abilities. Those. it is such a bolk that participates in the processes of solving all problems. One can make assumptions that this is the Pascual-Leone M-operator, attention, or others, but there is no reason to single out any of this.

In addition, then there should have been a task that would correlate with it very strongly, and secondly, there should not have been tasks that would correlate with factor G, but would not correlate with each other. This is not the case.

12.1 "Darwinian" approach to the description of the processes of creativity.

Why Darwinovsky is a combination of the natural and the accidental.

If we assume creativity as a strictly deterministic inference from the existing premises, then it is no longer creativity.

The use of experience, which we, following Ya.A. Ponomarev, will call intuitive. formed against the will of the subject and outside the field of his attention; it cannot be voluntarily actualized by the subject and manifests itself only in action.

In the course of our activity, not only a conscious, but also a special intuitive experience develops, which includes something that is not connected with the purpose of the action and for this reason is not in the field of our attention.

At Simonton:

ideation (selection of ideas) - the process of random formation of an idea as a result of the constellation of counter concepts (=> the rate of formation of ideas is proportional to the volume of cultural concepts)

development of ideas

The number of learned concepts is growing, and the possibility of developing them grows non-linearly as a factorial.

Price's Law: half of a creative product is produced by √n community members.

The asymmetry of the distribution of openings.

Parallel discoveries of scientists.

12.2 Cognitive processes underlying intelligence. "Elemental" approach (G. Eysenck, A. Jensen).

The characteristics of the nervous substrate determine the success of the course of thinking processes. (Eysenck: the speed and accuracy of the transmission of nerve impulses, Jensen: the length of the refractory period of the cell).

Eysenck believed that it was necessary to highlight the elements of intelligence:

solution speed

persistence in finding a solution

execution errors

He believed that intelligence is based on something that is not mental in nature, namely the speed of mental reactions, due to physiological reasons.

But then this should affect absolutely all processes - they should correlate with each other. The cognitive benefits should then appear dispersed across all blocks.

In summary: the speed of the nerve impulse- one of the determinants of the general factor, but not the only one.

13.1 Research by Ya.A. Ponomarev and his theory.

There are two layers of our experience:

1.conscious (purpose)

2. unconscious (at the level of action in addition to the goal in the intention).

In logical mode (target), we are only able to use logical structures.

The differences between these layers are based on:

by education (primary - unconscious, secondary - conscious)

by extraction (goal, direct product - consciousness, side product - action)

modes (reflection - goal, intuition - unconscious.)

Intuitive mechanism. firstly, it is formed against the will of the subject and outside the field of his attention; secondly, it cannot be arbitrarily actualized by the subject and manifests itself only in action. Task "Polytype Panel". it was required to put on, according to certain rules, a series of strips on the panel. The shape of the final arrangement of the planks on the panel was a by-product of the action. Then it was necessary to go through a labyrinth, the key to which repeated the outline of the panel. Under normal conditions, in the labyrinth there were 70 - 80 errors, after the "Panel" - no more than 8 - 10. If you ask why, they were mistaken. Even if before that half went right. If you turn the panel over, then eff. Disappears

Conclusion - people can function in two modes In a well-realized logical mode, they do not have access to their intuitive experience. If in their actions they rely on intuitive experience, then they cannot exercise conscious control and reflection of their actions.

Experiments give reason to talk about a special type of knowledge, which can be called intuitive (Ya.A.P), or implicit (Broadbent). serves as the basis for practical action, without being conscious and accessible to verbalization. This knowledge is generated under special conditions. Ponomarev - the condition of generation is the presence of a by-product of the action. insists on the role of practical action in generating intuitive knowledge.

Intuit. experience in creativity and plus and minus - rigid and can set stereotypes.

13.2 Structural-dynamic theory of intelligence.

Basic concepts

Thinking- the process in which intelligence is realized.

General factor - the expression of the mechanisms that determine the formation of intelligent systems.

In this context, when analyzing the general factor of intelligence, it is necessary to distinguish between two interrelated, but relatively autonomous moments:

functioning of an intelligent system at a given time

the dynamics of development or regression of this system.

Within the framework of the structural-dynamic approach, the explanatory principle lies not in the plane of one time slice, but in the dynamics of development. People differ in the structure of their intelligence, but these differences are formed in the course of development. This formation occurs both under the influence of external environmental factors and depending on the initial inclinations of a person. However, these inclinations are understood not as a ready-made cognitive structure that determines the success of intellectual activity, but as an individual-personal potential for the formation of such structures.

The cognitive system is organized on the basis of structures formed during their lifetime, "mental experience".

Capabilities- the properties of functional systems that implement individual mental functions, which have an individual measure of expression, manifested in the success and qualitative originality of the development and implementation of activities.

Potential - individually expressed ability to form functional systems responsible for intellectual behavior.

It is the individual differences in potential that most adequately explain the phenomena of the general factor. In the light of the concept of potential, any indicators of a person's intellectual functioning recorded at a given moment can be understood as manifestations of his cognitive structures, mental experience, which reflected both the individual and personal potential and the circumstances that directed this potential to the corresponding sphere. Therefore, when factoring test indicators, one should expect the emergence of a general factor as a reflection of individual differences in potential.

The empirically fixed correlations between intellectual functions, which form the basis of the factor structure of intelligence, according to the proposed approach, are divided into three parts.

Cognitive correlations are determined by the fact that different functions for their implementation partially use the same cognitive mechanisms. These correlations are similar to those described in single or multicomponent approaches, with the difference that they do not necessarily imply overlaps between many functions.

Environmental correlations associated with the fact that within the framework of any cultural environment, holistic alternative patterns of scenarios of human socialization can develop.

Potential correlations, are the main explanatory principle for the phenomenon of the general factor. People with higher potential may perform better on various intellectual functions, even if these functions are not linked by any cognitive or environmental correlations. Moreover, if environmental and partially cognitive correlations lead to both positive and negative values ​​of empirical correlations, correlations associated with potential - only positive ones.

The possibilities of the structural-dynamic approach and the concept of potential go beyond the scope of only one general factor.

Shifting the emphasis on the formation of intelligence presupposes the creation of an adequate model of the conditions for this formation. Thus, the model of environmental influences on the development of intelligence turns out to be part of the body of knowledge about the structure of intelligence.

The description of intelligence becomes multidimensional, since it is forced to take into account not only the functioning of its structure, but also the dynamics of development. There is a need to correlate the simultaneous characteristics of intellectual functions (such as their intercorrelation) and the successive characteristics - the rate of development.

Multidimensionality presupposes the creation of new explanatory methods.

14.1 Cognitive processes underlying intelligence. Component approach. See 1.2 and 9.1 14.2 The concept of by-product and its role in the creative process.

Inhomogeneity of objective action: as a result of a successful (purposeful) action, we get a result, acc. pre-set goal (direct product of action), and the result, cat. was not provided for a conscious purpose (i.e., was a by-product). The problem of the conscious and the unconscious was concretized by Ponomarev into the problem of the relationship between these products. The by-product of the action is also reflected by the subject, but it is not represented in the form of consciousness. It develops under the influence of those specific sv-in things and phenomena, cat. incl. into action, but insignificant from the point of view of its purpose. Translation of a by-product into a straight line (the so-called reorientation) is possible when the prompt precedes the main task, and even then not always.

For example, a problem with 6 matches and 4 triangles and a hint problem with placing boxes on a small area (where they should be placed on the edge). Hint should be. given at the moment when a person has already joined in solving the main problem and tried all the methods.

Intelligence and creativity are measured with the help. fairly simple tasks, for the solution of which relatively small periods of time are allocated. Intuitive experiences can be manifested, but not necessarily positively. This takes more time.

Connection of intuitive abilities with real creative achievements of a person: many intellectually gifted children do not adapt well socially. They cannot take advantage of their intelligence where it is required to accumulate intuitive

Artists often point out their own intuition themselves. For example, let us recall Pushkin's Mozart and Salieri (a premonition of death). The poet, according to Pushkin, has the ability to perceive by the periphery of consciousness that which is inaccessible to other people.

Dowser - There is a certain interaction between the desired object and the human body. This can be a change in the softness of the ground underfoot in the presence of a track at depth, or a change in electromagnetic or some other fields. If you put the vines on a cart, nothing happens.

At the same time, as we suggested above, the development of the intuitive component of thinking is not diagnosed by tests of intelligence or creativity, but seems to be important for success in science and art.

15.1 Empirical data on the age characteristics of creativity, the distribution of creative achievements in the community, simultaneous discoveries and their theoretical explanation. 15.2. Flynn effect. Intelligent acceleration.

Average scores on intelligence tests are growing steadily in most countries around the world. Growth is more pronounced in the field of non-verbal intelligence (the maximum increase is observed in purely non-verbal tests).

Growth was uneven, periods of strong growth: 1890-1920s, the period after WWII.

improving education; - since it does not explain the increase in intelligence in preschoolers

increase in information flow; - children who watch more TV and listen to the radio do not show better results

improving nutrition, health and hygiene; + since there is also physical acceleration.

An increase in the quantity and quality of attention given to the child by adults thanks to inventions that make life easier.

16.1 Intelligence as a predictor of achievements in life.

The Americans tried to track the achievements of the Olympiad winners over the years. But methodological difficulties cast doubt on everything: only 2/3 of the participants answered them, perhaps those who have something to be proud of, and those who have nothing - did not answer. In addition, it was necessary to compare their achievements with the achievements of non-participants - in order to reveal their superiority. And this was not done.

Our research.

At the participants of the intellectual marathon.

Indicators:

Raven's non-verbal intelligence

verbal creativity according to the test "Unusual use" by Guildford

personality rapid test

Results:

Raven's test correlated with mathematical achievement, and verbal creativity with humanitarian. Those. Raven's test cannot be regarded as simply intellectual - it does not apply to all intelligence, and Guilford's test - as a test of simple creativity - it refers to verbal abilities.

Non-verbal intelligence is a necessary, but not a sufficient condition for mathematical achievements - up to a certain level of intelligence they are impossible, but at a high level they are not necessarily achieved - achievements can be both high and low.

In general, the correlation of intelligence tests with Olympiad achievements is lower than with school performance or professional success.

16.2 Parental Environment Influence of family intelligence on intelligence and creativity.

The older the parents are, the higher the intelligence of children.

Intelligence is the higher, the fewer children.

Younger children have lower intelligence than older children.

In large families, intelligence tends to decrease especially when the intervals between childbirth are reduced.

In families with a high educational and economic status, the intelligence of children is higher and all of the above effects are less pronounced.

There are cross-cultural differences.

The phenomenon of the relationship between family structure and intelligence is less pronounced in higher social classes and cultures, where each child receives a lot of attention.

Zayonts: a child's intelligence is proportional to the average intelligence of all family members.

BUT: The intelligence of the parents is not a decisive environmental factor.

The environment is more influential in childhood than in older age.

Correlation with the intelligence of biological parents is much greater (0.4-0.6) than with the intelligence of adoptive parents (often zero). A foster family can have a large impact on a child's intelligence, but his intelligence is weakly correlated with that of foster parents. This is a contradiction of the imitation model (the more successful the child's development is, the higher the intelligence of others).

Druzhinin: the intellect of the child is more dependent on the intellect of the mother. Skoblik: you need to talk not about the mother, but about the more emotionally close parent.

Tikhomirova T.N .: children in whose upbringing grandmothers play a predominant role, show a higher level of creativity. 2 different parenting styles - parenting style and grandmother parenting style. The positive influence of the grandmother on the development of the child's creativity is explained by the following factors: fewer demands on the child, the resolution of emotional self-expression, the encouragement of the child's positive self-esteem.

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5. Russian Academy of Sciences Institute of Psychology

   Institute of Psychology RAS Publishing House

   Moscow 2004

   UDC 159.9 BBK 88

   S 69

   P 69 Social Intelligence: Theory, Measurement, Research / Ed. D. V. Lyusina, D. V. Ushakova. - M .: Publishing House of the Institute of Psychology RAS, 2004. - 176 p. (Proceedings of the Institute of Psychology RAS)

   UDC 159.9 BBK 88

   Social intelligence is an extremely important human ability that largely determines the possibility of life among people. The book, written by leading experts on this issue, examines theoretical approaches, methods of measurement and experimental research of social intelligence.

   ISBN 5–9270–0058–4

   © Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2004

   Introduction ................................................. .....................................
   SECTION ONE
   THEORETICAL APPROACHES
   D.V. Ushakov. Social intelligence as a kind of intelligence ........
   D. V. Lyusin. Contemporary views
   about emotional intelligence ..........................................
   SECTION TWO
   EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
   S. S. Belova. Subjective assessment of the intelligence of another
   human: the effect of verbalization .......................................

   A. S. Gerasimova, E. A. Sergienko.Children's understanding of deception as an indicator of the formation of a mental model

   ("Theory of mind") ........................................... .....................
   E. A. Petrova, A. A. Rodionova. Personal determinants
   psychological observation .................................
   T. A. Sysoeva. Influence of the emotional state
   on mnemonic processes: the effect of congruence ..........
   SECTION THREE
   METHODS FOR MEASURING SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE
   S. S. Belova. Social intelligence: a comparative analysis
   measurement techniques ................................................ .........

   D. V. Lyusin, N. D. Mikheeva.Psychometric analysis of the Russian version of the social intelligence test

   D. V. Lyusin, O. O. Maryutina, A. S. Stepanova.The structure of emotional intelligence and the relationship of its components with individual characteristics:

   INTRODUCTION 1

   After reading the comedy A.S. Griboyedov "Woe from Wit" in January 1825, A.S. Pushkin wrote to his friend A.A. A letter to Bestuzhev, in which he raised a question that today, albeit in special terms, is the problem of the psychology of the intellect. Pushkin doubted that Chatsky's grief was from the mind. According to Pushkin, in the comedy "Woe from Wit" the clever character is Griboyedov. “Do you know who Chatsky is? An ardent, noble and kind fellow, who spent some time with a very intelligent person (namely Griboe) and was saturated with his thoughts, witticisms and satirical remarks. Everything he says is very clever. But to whom does he say all this? Famusov? Skalozub? At the ball to Moscow grandmothers? Silently "lin? All this is unforgivable. The first sign of an intelligent person is to know at first glance who you are dealing with and not throw beads in front of Repetilov and the like. " (Pushkin, 1958, p. 122).

   The first sign of an intelligent person, called by Pushkin, is a sign of social intelligence, that is, the ability to understand other people and their behavior. Chatsky's grief is not entirely from the mind. More precisely, it is from the structure of his mind. Perhaps he is quite capable. ben and receptive, in order to perceive in an abstract form what, according to Pushkin (who liked to arrange meetings of authors with his heroes in a somewhat postmodernist spirit), says Gribo "Edov. However, in the structure of Chatsky's mind there is a weak point - a lack of understanding he's dealing. The cause of his million torments is not an excess of intelligence in itself, the cause is a lack of social intelligence.

   It is social intelligence, the role of which we will illustrate "

   1 The compilers of this publication would like to express their gratitude to the Russian Guma "Nitary Scientific Foundation, as a result of whose support (grants No. 02-06-00127a and 03-06-00557d) the appearance of this work became possible.

   understand the inner world of other people, as well as their behavior. In this definition, in contrast to those given after E. Thorne by many researchers, social intelligence is limited to the ability to cognize and does not extend to the ability to carry out adequate social actions. in society, for example, convincing people, leading them along, charming or bringing them into a certain mood is far from being exhausted by intellect. Charisma is not only intellect, it is also temperament, appearance and much, much more.

   V This book, in addition to social intelligence, discusses other related concepts, in particular, emotional and practical intelligence. It is important to understand how they relate. nevertheless, we will try to bring some clarity in order to set the context for the perception of the following articles.

   Despite the existence of different approaches to the interpretation of emotional intelligence, all authors have in mind the ability to "know the emotional world of people." It may seem that emotional intelligence is a special case of social intelligence. . on cognition of one's own emotions. It is this second aspect of it that goes beyond the traditional understanding of social intelligence.

   Practical intelligence also in certain respects intersects with the social, but does not completely coincide with it. It is possible both practical intelligence of a non-social type (manifested, for example, when it is necessary to hammer a nail into an unsuitable wall for this), and theoretical social intelligence However, a large place is occupied by the phenomena at the intersection of practical and social intelligence. It is about them that we are talking

   v this book where the term "practical intelligence" is used.

   V In the book, the reader will also discover the concept of psychological insight. It seems to be largely the same as the concept of social intelligence. The word "insight" emphasizes the ability to penetrate beyond the surface of phenomena to the deep essence and experiences of another person.

   Social intelligence is a rapidly developing, but not yet very well-developed area of ​​psychology, especially if we compare it "thread with the traditional psychology of intelligence. In this book

   articles of various genres are presented, "attacking" from different sides

   shchy ”problems of social intelligence. Thus, the first section is devoted to the theoretical analysis of the basic concepts in this area. The third section is devoted to various approaches to the diagnosis of social, emotional and practical intelligence. The works of this section are especially relevant due to the fact that there are very few Russian-language methods for measuring these constructs.

   Of course, for the fruitful development of the problematics of social intelligence, experimental studies of a wide range of related issues are necessary. Research on social knowledge has long been carried out both in foreign and domestic psychology. The second section of our book also presents new works of this kind. We have tried to reflect the different directions of "empirical research related to social intelligence" vol. For example, one of these areas is the study of models of the psyche (theories of mind), which are understood as a person's ideas about the mental states of other people. "social intelligence. Another interesting direction is the relationship between cognitive and emotional processes, in particular, the study of the influence of emotions on memory. Works of this kind contribute to the analysis of the theoretical problem of the unity of intellect and affect.

   If we return to the cited letter of Pushkin, then it is interesting to note that for him the “first sign of an intelligent person” refers to “the field of social intelligence, and not, say, to the academy.”

   technical or technical ability. This can be understood: for the lifestyle filled with diverse communication that the European nobility led during the time of Pushkin, social intelligence was an ability of paramount importance. Today, when a large share of physical labor is transferred to technology, and routine mental labor to computers, social intelligence is becoming paramount for most strata of society.

   Literature

   Pushkin A.S. Full collection op. In 10 volumes, vol. 10.M .: Publishing house of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1958.

   D. V. Lyusin

   D. V. Ushakov

   SECTION ONE

   THEORETICAL

   SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE AS A KIND

   INTELLECT1

   D. V. Ushakov

   Recently, the problem of social intelligence has attracted more and more attention of researchers. There are several reasons for this. On the one hand, social intelligence is "an extremely important practical quality, and with the development of research, new and completely unobvious aspects of its application become clear. Thus, the famous American psychologist R. Sternberg (Sternberg, Grigorenko, 1997) developed the so-called" According to this “investment theory of creativity,” according to which a creative person is distinguished by his ability to invest his energy in an idea that is currently low in the professional community, so that later, by developing this idea, give it a high status, “sell at a high price.” Of course , transferring the principle of "buy low, sell high" to the area of ​​creativity is a very American approach, but nevertheless Sternberg draws attention to a very important aspect: creativity today "

   In areas such as science, it is included in a wide network of division of labor, movement forward is becoming more and more collective, and a scientist must have social intelligence on a par with subject intelligence in order to successfully participate in this collective movement. society, according to Sternberg, turns out to be almost as important as the ability to generate an idea. Social intelligence is a component of creativity

   v modern society.

   WITH on the other hand, the problem of social intelligence turns out to be "important theoretically and even philosophically. Passion for informational cognitivism in 60-80 "ies brought to the fore the" computational "," computer-like "models of the thinking process. Problems of emotions (Tikhomirov, 1980), intuition (Ponoma" rev, 1976), "nondisjunctive" process (Brushlinsky, 1979)

   1 This work was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research, grant no. 02–06–80442.

   

   turned out to be secondary for the cognitive psychology of that period. Gradually, however, the limits of applicability of “solid” cognitivism became very clear, and the luminaries of this trend started talking about things that were completely unusual for themselves: H. Simon and D. Broadbent - about intuition (Berry , Broadbent, 1995; Simon, 1987), G. Bower (Bower, 1981, 1992) - about the representation of emotions in the semantic network, etc.

   Social intelligence is just such a problem where cognitive and affective interact. In the field of social intelligence, an approach is being developed that understands a person not just as a computational mechanism, but as a cognitively “emotional” being.

   Unfortunately, however, such an attractive object continues to remain elusive for the theory. It would seem that a sufficiently comprehensive theory of intelligence would have to cover the social intelligence, but for most of these theories it appears to be on the periphery of study. a view of social intelligence from the standpoint of a structurally "dynamic" theory developed by the author will be presented.

   Mechanisms and processes of social intelligence

   To begin with, let's take some "some example of a real situation in which it is necessary to use social intelligence. Tolerance"

   Tim, someone says: "Ivanov, of course, will not refuse our invitation: he has recently been in the city, and he needs to tie the sign" of his. " Another replies: “I think he will refuse: he“ lives on his independence too dearly ”.

   Which of the respondents is right? Obviously, we cannot answer this question without knowing Ivanov. Each of the interlocutors identified a specific motive 2 that could govern Ivanov's behavior. Both motives seem plausible. But which of them does not "resil?"

   This subjective "weighing" represents the universal "greasy moment of the work of social intelligence, because